VCU Challenges and Related Interventions for Middle and Late Adulthood Essay

Document three challenges and related interventions for middle and late adulthood (2-4 page chart)

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Purpose

To successfully complete this assignment, you will need to review the reading material from the week and identify two specific challenges experienced by those in middle and late adulthood. The challenges should be linked to the relevant stages for this age group. Additionally, you will identify potential evidenced based interventions for these populations, with the scholarly reference provided. Once you have located this information, fill out the table provided below and submit it as noted.

Age RangeChallenge (2-3 sentences each)Theoretical Base

Potential Intervention(2-3 sentence explanation)

ReferenceMiddle AdulthoodLate Adulthood

Chapter 13
Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development
Janet Froeschle Hicks and Brandé Flamez
Young adulthood refers to individuals between adolescence and middle age (All Psychology
Careers, 2014; Levinson, 1978). Despite fewer physical and cognitive changes occurring than
previously seen during adolescence, gradual transitions in physical and cognitive development
continue throughout the 20s and 30s. Physical and biological factors become evident through
changes in appearance, strength, joints, bones, lung and heart functioning, as well as sexuality.
Cognitive health habits during early adulthood correlate with later life memory and brain
functioning. Given the connection between physical and mental health (Collingwood, 2010;
Russell-Chapin & Jones, 2014) and the importance of self-care on future development,
counselors are in optimal positions to assist early adults with decisions that affect quality of
life. As a result, this chapter offers information on physical and cognitive changes for those in
early adulthood as well as information counselors need to improve clients’ current and future
mental health.
Box 13.1: Improving Client Health
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Carmela is a 20-year-old African American female who comes to you for counseling. She
states that she has been told by her medical doctor that she is overweight and headed for
health issues if she doesn’t change her diet and start exercising. When asked if she is
making these changes, Carmela states, “I am not worried about it now. I will worry about
it when I get old—you know, when it really affects me.” As Carmela’s counselor, what is
your ethical responsibility? What might you say to Carmela?
Definition of Terms
To understand physical and cognitive development, a distinction must be made between
several terms. Biological changes include the physical functioning of the human body whereas
cognitions refer to brain- and memory-related aspects. Each term is described as follows.
Physical Changes
Physical development involves biological factors such as height and weight and is fully
attained by age 25 years. Females tend to reach maximum height by age 18 years, but males
often grow into the early 20s. Once both genders reach age 21 years, maximum height has been
attained and growth stops. Muscle mass and body fat continue to develop, however, and the
average male and female gain 15 pounds between ages 17 and 25 years (All Psychology
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Careers, 2014).
This stage of full physical development tends to be a time of vitality and health. Early adults
typically have healthy skin, maximum strength, coordination, reaction time, and motor skills.
Further, the five senses (taste, touch, smell, hearing, sight) are optimal, sexual response is fully
functional, and no age-related physical deterioration is evident. With the exception of death by
homicide, suicide, eating disorders, and motor vehicle, death rates are low and disease is rare
(All Psychology Careers, 2014).
By age 30 years, however, a progressive decline in health and strength begins. One of the first
signs of aging is noticed in the musculoskeletal system. Lowered levels of growth hormone and
testosterone along with fewer and less efficient muscle fibers eventually lead to a 10–15%
reduction in strength and mass over the lifespan, lowered caloric needs, and reduced ability to
compete athletically or exercise vigorously (Merck, 2014). For example, the maximum speed
and duration for which a person can run, row a boat, or ride a bicycle decreases.
Other declines in physical health that begin around age 30 years include calcium loss, lowered
kidney functioning, reduced reproductive capacity, and cardiovascular decline. Calcium loss in
the bones can lead to osteoporosis later in life if the young adult does not have a proper diet
including sufficient calcium. Physical activity has also shown the ability to offset decreased
bone density in both men (Bolam, van Uffelen, & Taafe, 2013) and women (Andreoli, Celi,
Volpe, Sorge, & Tarantino, 2012).
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The third decade of life also affects the urinary system. Around age 30 years, the kidneys
decline in their ability to filter blood and remove waste. As a result, the body becomes more
easily dehydrated after age 30 (Merck, 2014). Proper intake of fluids is important especially
when active in extreme temperatures.
Maximal oxygen consumption is reduced by 5–15% and maximal heart rate decreases by 6 to
10 beats each decade after age 25–30. This phenomenon explains the fact that most Olympic
and professional athletes are under age 40 years. According to the American College of Sports
Medicine (n.d.), regular physical activity can offset many of the negative aspects attributed to
aging and contributes to a better quality of life. Counselors must motivate young adults to
participate in regular exercise, eat a healthy diet, maintain optimal body weight, and avoid
activities and substances that contribute to decline in wellness.
Motivating early adults to participate in healthy eating and exercise may be easier if specific
age is taken into consideration, however. Quindry, Yount, O’Bryant, and Rudisill (2011)
concluded that while fitness is a factor in promoting exercise engagement across the lifespan,
exercise motivation for those aged 35 to 49 differs from those in adolescence or young
adulthood. For example, fitness and interpersonal factors motivate those aged 20–34 years,
whereas body image, psychological, and health factors motivate those ranging in age from 35
to 49 years. Further, young adults may need help transitioning from a time during their 20s
where sports were an all consuming school passion to a new phase where family and career
must take priority. This is helpful information for counselors to consider when seeking
individualized ways to encourage healthy exercise behaviors.
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Box 13.2: The Case of Lloyd
Lloyd is a 35-year-old African American single male who has been drinking several cans
of beer on Friday and Saturday nights since he left home to attend college 12 years ago.
He also eats junk food for meals because (as he states), “I like it, and I don’t want to
cook.” Lately, Lloyd notices he has less energy, itchy skin, and his physician has told him
he is dehydrated and his blood pressure is elevated. Why might Lloyd be experiencing
these side effects? As Lloyd’s counselor what information would you share with him?
Gender Issues
Regardless of gender, reproductive capacity declines with age. Fertility problems increase
after age 35 years, affecting both ova in females and sperm production in males. For women,
aging affects not only fertility but also pregnancy, postpartum functioning, and health of
offspring.
Pregnancy and postpartum issues are significant milestones for women in early adulthood. For
example, excessive weight gain during and after pregnancy is becoming more common. Of the
weight gained during pregnancy, most women maintain approximately 5 pounds long term
(Stotland et al., 2010). This weight gain can lead to obesity and associated health issues as
well as lowered self-image. Support from family and friends during this time can influence
increased physical activity levels and eating habits that correlate with weight loss (Keller,
Allan, & Tinkle, 2006).
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Box 13.3: The Case of Ben and Fran
Ben and Fran have been trying to conceive a child for 7 years without success. Fran
recently found out she has a medical condition making it unlikely she will be able to
conceive a child without medical intervention. Ben explains that Fran’s emotions fluctuate
from anger to tears over her inability to conceive and he is left feeling devalued and
anxious. Fran wants to try in vitro fertilization, a procedure where her eggs will be
surgically removed, fertilized with Ben’s sperm, and reimplanted into her uterus. Ben is
concerned about the expense, medical risks to Fran, and the possibility of a multiple birth.
How might counseling help Ben and Fran?
Another developmental issue experienced during the postpartum stage is depression. New
mothers may not anticipate the normal anxiety and depression experienced up to two weeks
after birth, often termed the baby blues. This phase is characterized by mild sadness, anxiety,
and mood swings. Should depressive symptoms become more severe and present within the
first 3 months following childbirth, a more serious diagnosis of postpartum depression may be
in order. Postpartum depression includes symptoms such as inability to sleep, lowered affect,
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and inability to function adequately. Postpartum psychosis, an even more severe diagnosis, is
experienced by up to 0.3% of women and is characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and
other psychotic symptoms. Clients experiencing the latter diagnoses are often treated with
cognitive behavioral therapy, group counseling, and antidepressant medications (Association
of Reproductive Health Professionals, 2013). For those experiencing baby blues, counselors
can help normalize the experience, encourage healthy eating and sleep habits, and promote
exercise to boost beta-endorphins (Association of Reproductive Health Professionals, 2013;
Ko, Yang, Fang, Lee, & Lin, 2013).
Aging can also affect a person’s offspring. The odds of delivering a baby with chromosomal
abnormalities such as Down’s syndrome increase as women age (Dotinga, 2014). Further,
women over the age of 35 years are more likely to give birth to low birth weight or premature
babies and have a greater chance of miscarriage or multiple births. Some studies infer a man’s
age at conception also affects the health of his biological children but more studies are needed
to arrive at a definitive conclusion (Mayo Clinic, 2015).
Cognitive Changes
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Cognitive growth involves development and changes in thought processes as promoted by
major life issues, brain growth, memory, and environment. This cognitive growth typically
peaks around age 35 years (Boundless, 2014). Many researchers suggest that the prefrontal
cortex (brain portion that controls self-judgment, problem solving, risk taking, planning, and
prioritizing) remains underdeveloped until approximately age 25 years (Donald, 2001; Giedd,
1999, 2004; Simpson, n.d.). Jean Piaget’s (1896–1980) theory of cognitive development, as
mentioned in chapter 2, concurs with this stance in that adolescents use formal operational
thinking until age 25 years (Boundless, 2014). At this time, cognitions become relativistic, that
is, more flexible and less absolute. The early adult can now consider multiple options
including a variety of ways to solve problems (All Psychology Careers, 2014). This
postformal operational thinking results in reasoned argument and dialectical thinking between
ages 20 and 40 years (Boundless, 2014).
Not surprisingly, this brain and cognitive development affects transition stages and decisions
made as the young adult matures. Several theories have been written to describe these life
stages that involve brain development, cognitions, and decision making in early adulthood, and
these are described in the next section.
Theoretical Background and Early Adulthood
Life Stages and Transition Theories for Early Adulthood
The early adulthood stage is built on numerous processes, rites, and passages that reciprocally
influence physical and cognitive development. A thorough understanding of these processes
and the theories that guide them assists counselors as they empathize with and take client
diversity into account. Following are descriptions of transition theories that are applicable
when working with clients in early adulthood.
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Levinson’s Seasons of a Man’s Life
Levinson (1978) described five main stages whereby a person’s life structure or pattern of
relationships develops. The first adult stage, era of early adulthood, encompasses the ages
between 17 and 45 years and consists of three substages: early adult transition (ages 17–22);
midlife transition (ages 40–45); and late adult transition (ages 60–65). Within the era of
early adulthood, three substages are described: entry life structure for early adulthood (ages
22–28); age 30 transition (ages 28–33); and the culminating life structure for early
adulthood phase (ages 33–40). Levinson also discussed mid-life and late life adult transition
stages. More emphasis will be given to these phases in later chapters.
Early adult transition marks the beginning of adult independence. The adolescent leaves home
and must make responsible choices regarding personal and financial issues. This stage is
pivotal because it marks the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. Counselors help
young adults in this life stage by offering information on personal finances, educational
choices, college financial aid assistance, career counseling, and other adjustment issues of
living independently. Discouragement of drug use and encouragement of sexual responsibility
may also be appropriate at this stage.
Entry life structure for early adulthood marks the time when early adults choose a life path. For
example, the young adult ponders future family life, financial and career success, and begins to
set goals for the future. The successful selection of mentors at this stage may be crucial to
achieving future success. Early adults in this stage need help via career testing and counseling,
assistance with goal setting, as well as personal counseling to overcome prior setbacks and
consequences of poor decisions.
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Age 30 transition is the stage where goals are attained or lost based on current and previous
decisions. The young adult contemplates past successes and failures and forms new goals. A
life structure is built around goals that have been accomplished. The person in this stage
becomes interested in settling down, establishing a family, and finding a role in society. During
this stage, the early adult may need career, premarital, relationship, or family counseling.
Around age 30, the early adult must learn to maintain personal and career life balance as well
as to manage family transitions.
The culminating life structure for the early adulthood phase requires a shift to adult and
parental thinking. Young adults in this phase face demanding roles and expectations and feel
pressure to find a niche within society. Many clients feel failure if they do not achieve career
goals during this stage. Fortunately, as one matures, relativistic thinking develops allowing the
ability to conceptualize ideas through others’ perspectives (Perry, 1970). Counselors can help
early adults transition to this form of adult thinking by pointing out differing viewpoints that
help clients overcome feelings of failure.
Reinke’s Turning Points
Although Levinson’s work offered valuable information and stages to explain early adult
transitions, it was missing a major component. The research was conducted on—and therefore
could be generalized only to—males. As a result, Reinke, Holmes, and Harris (1985) built
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upon Levinson’s work by studying early adult stages with females.
Box 13.4: Gender Bias and Female Life Transitions
Barbara Reinke stated that females experience transition between the ages of 27 and 30
years marked by personal disruption, life reassessment, and reorientation. Reinke also
discovered that the family system, geographical moves, career issues, and child-rearing
all contributed to female transition (Reinke et al., 1985). How might gender bias have
influenced these issues among females in the 1980s? Do you think results would change if
the same study was done today? Why or why not?
Regardless of whether the transition was experienced by males or females, however, one
commonality was evidenced. Transitions required decision making, which was affected by
cognitive development and mature thought. For this reason, brain development and cognitive
development are embedded within any discussion on life stages, transitions, and problem
solving. Let us discuss these cognitive processes as based on brain functioning, cognitions, and
developmental theories.
The Brain, Cognitions, and Development
A number of theories support the premise that from around age 18 years, until the third decade
of life, mature thought and brain structures develop. For example, the adolescent entering
young adulthood now considers multiple options when solving problems (All Psychology
Careers, 2014). This postformal operational thinking results in reasoned argument and
dialectical thinking between ages 20–40 (Boundless, 2014). Postformal relativistic and
dialectical thinking require more insightful thought processes and are described, along with
brain mapping and development, as follows.
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Brain Mapping
Neuroscience is changing the way mental health professionals diagnose and treat client issues.
For example, brain mapping is increasingly used to compare emotion regulation and decision
making without the need for invasive surgery. Collura, Bonstetter, and Zalaquett (2014)
advocated the use of electroencephalogram (EEG) technology to better understand client
experiences based on emotional responses. For example, a client whose brain shows right
hemisphere activity when given a phrase such as body fat is indicating negative emotion. This
knowledge assists counselors as they empathize with clients and attempt to understand the
degree for which certain issues affect emotions and accompanying emotional responses.
Particular counseling micro skills can then be used to address concerns that might otherwise be
unknown.
Brain Development
To further understand how to use and interpret brain mapping, let us examine the parts of the
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brain.
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As young adults approach their mid-20s, the prefrontal cortex is undergoing vast changes that
affect behavior. The prefrontal cortex, or executive suite, is affected by two factors:
myelination and synaptic pruning. Myelination refers to the insulation of nerve fibers by a
substance called myelin. This insulating process allows efficient transmittal of signals from the
brain to the body (Simpson, n.d.). Synaptic pruning first occurs at puberty and continues
throughout the 20s (Zukerman & Purcell, 2011). Pruning describes the process whereby
patches of nerves are snipped allowing adept transfer of signals and communication with other
parts of the brain. This enhanced communication between brain regions allows for improved
emotion regulation, planning, problem solving, judgment, preparation, and calculation of risk
(Simpson, n.d.). Not surprisingly, this improved brain functioning results in more mature and
logical thought processes.
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Box 13.5: Examine the Parts of the Brain
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The occipital lobes are active in vision and the temporal lobes process hearing, language,
and memory. The parietal lobes assist with spatial location, attention, and motor control.
The frontal lobes are responsible for thinking, personality, and movement (Simpson, n.d.).
The prefrontal cortex (pole) is active in decision making and is an especially relevant
portion of the brain when considering young adult development. Why would counselors be
advised to understand parts of the brain?
Figure 13.1 The development of the brain.
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Box 13.6: Risk Taking and the Prefrontal Cortex
The legal age in which a person may drink alcohol in most cases is 21 years. Thirty-five
states, however, allow underage drinking provided it occurs on private, non-alcoholselling premises and with parental consent (Procon.org, 2014). Based on the discussion in
this chapter regarding the prefrontal cortex, why do you think many states allow this?
Using the ACA Code of Ethics (2014; http://counseling.org/Resources/aca-code-ofethics.pdf) as a guide, what stance should counselors ethically take on this position, or
should they have an opinion at all? What ethical codes would support your stance?
Postformal and Logical Thinking in Early Adulthood
As adolescents move toward early adulthood, their brains and cognitive abilities reciprocally
develop. This development creates the ability to focus on greater abstractions and the inherent
organization of these abstract thoughts. This postformal or logical thinking has been described
as part of growth and development by numerous theorists as follows.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development
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Piaget described four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor (ages 0–2 years);
preoperational (ages 2–7 years); concrete operational (ages 7–11 years); and formal
operational (ages 11–adulthood). During these stages, cognitive thinking evolves from
reflexive, instinctual action in the sensorimotor stage to symbolic thinking in the preoperational
stage. The concrete operational stage is noted as the child begins to understand logic about
concrete events, including the concept of conservation. Formal operational thought is
characterized by abstract thinking and logical hypotheses (Piaget, 1952, 1954).
Some theorists suggest the presence of a fifth stage transcending beyond Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development. This fifth stage, the postformal stage, is thought to evolve in young
adulthood as adolescents mature and begin to accept ambiguity. For example, adolescents tend
to look for correct answers whereas young adults are comfortable brainstorming multiple
solutions to a problem. Further, disagreement is accepted in the postformal developmental
stage and is viewed as the means to better understanding (Siobhan, 2007). Postformal thought
is only observed in the adult population and some never reach this stage of reasoning (Freberg,
n.d.).
Dialectical Thinking
Dialectical thinking involves cognitions in the form of process, context, relationship, and
transformation. Process describes how changes occur whereas context describes the existence
of pieces that fit within the entire structure. Relationship describes thinking about how things
are related and what they have in common, while transformation is the formation of thoughts
about the dissolution of previous systems, the consequent evolution of new developments, and
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the constant change that is part of the process (Boundless, 2014). Not surprisingly, dialectical
thought has been referred to as the most advanced form of cognition. This is because the person
is able to compare numerous angles and possibilities of a problem including advantages,
disadvantages, beliefs, and experiences resulting in a new level of truth (Riegel, 1979; Rowan,
2000).
Relativistic Thinking
Perry (1970) found changes occur in cognitive processes as undergraduate college students
mature. Sequential stages within Perry’s model include dualism, multiplicity, relativity, and
commitment. Younger students tend to think dualistically. That is, they divide ideas
dichotomously and judge ideas as either right versus wrong or good versus bad.
As undergraduate college students age, they move into the multiplistic stage. During this stage,
students sort problems into those that are solvable and those that cannot be solved. When
evaluating these problems, equal credibility is given to all sources.
The third stage, relativity, is where solutions are evaluated within their own context. For the
first time, the validity of various viewpoints is weighed. Nonetheless, determining which
sources are credible is still a source of contention.
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Box 13.7: Relativistic Thinking
Bethany is an 18-year-old college freshman who comes to you, the counselor, to discuss
the behavior of her roommate, Kara. Bethany explains that Kara is unreasonable and
insists on inviting friends over on the weekends when she is trying to study. After arguing
with Bethany for some time, Kara is willing to allow a quiet study day on Sundays but
insists she needs to socialize “at some time.” Bethany feels this is unreasonable and states
that “weekends are for studying” and Kara is wrong to ask for any accommodation.
Bethany also states she is failing her philosophy class because the instructor will not “just
tell the class the right answers.” What type of thinking is Bethany exhibiting? What might a
counselor do to help Bethany learn to compromise? How does this apply to Bethany’s
grade in philosophy class?
The final stage, commitment in relativism, is where uncertainty is accepted and both
experience and evidence are used to arrive at conclusions. This form of thinking looks at
concepts from others’ perspectives and angles and requires logic to analyze and problem solve
(Perry, 1970). This relativistic thinking is the highest form of reflective judgment and results in
creativity and even expertise if utilized fully (Boundless, 2014; Johnson, 1994).
Pragmatic Thought
LaBouvie-Vief (1980) stated that as individuals go through early adulthood they gain in
cognitive-affective complexity. For example, LaBouvie-Vief refers to pragmatic thought
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experienced in adulthood as the transition from idealistic ideas to practical and realistic
possibilities. Logic is the tool used to narrow down unlimited possibilities and transform them
into usable practical choices. For example, success in a career requires the person to narrow
choices such that a person’s skills and aptitudes lead to expertise and success.
Schaie’s Developmental Theory of Adult Cognitive Adjustment and
Early Adulthood
K. Warner Schaie has studied how health, demographic, personality, and environmental factors
influence individual differences in successful cognitive aging. Schaie’s (2005) and Schaie and
Willis’s (2000) developmental theories divide the lifespan into several stages: acquisitive,
achieving, responsibility and executive, reorganizational, reintegrative, and legacy leaving.
These stages describe cognitive phases throughout the lifespan. Since this chapter focuses on
early adulthood, let us discuss the stages falling within this phase of life.
The achieving stage begins in early adulthood. This substage depicts early adulthood as the
time when the individual uses cognitive skills to acquire success in life situations such as on
the job, in marriage, and in raising children. Previously learned skills are strengthened and
decisions are considered with regard to how they affect other life issues.
The responsibility stage occurs once a family is established and decisions require a
consideration of others. For example, the person in the responsibility stage must consider
family needs and make decisions accordingly. Knowing that one’s decisions affect others in the
family or community creates a need for open mindedness and thoughtfulness in choices.
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The executive stage affects approximately 25% of early- and middle-aged adults. These adults
are those who attain professional positions requiring high levels of leadership and who must
make responsible executive decisions affecting numerous people’s lives and careers (Schaie,
Willis, & Caskie, 2014). People at this level must learn skills related to societal hierarchies,
conflict resolution, diversity, and loyalty.
As part of his studies on cognitive aging, Schaie also stated that four of six intellectual abilities
(inductive, spatial, vocabulary, and verbal) are highest in the mid-40s to early 50s. Perceptual
speed declines in the 20s and numerical ability falls in the 40s (Lyons et al., 2009). More
studies are needed to determine exactly how intellectual and cognitive abilities decline after
early adulthood. One thing that is certain, however, is that degeneration and memory loss are
factors associated with aging.
Cognitive Degeneration and Memory
Just as the brain becomes fully developed, degenerative changes begin occurring. The brain
shrinks with increasing age, memory impairment increases, and cognitions are affected
(Muller-Oehring, Schulte, Rohlfing, Pfefferbaum, & Sullivan, 2013). This brain shrinkage is
especially evident in the prefrontal cortex. For example, between the ages of 30 and 80 years,
the brain loses up to 14% of frontal lobe gray matter and 24% of frontal lobe white matter
(Balter, 2011). Other brain areas are also affected including the cerebellar hemispheres and
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hippocampus (Chang, Nien, Chen, & Yan, 2014).
Reductions in neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
also make the brain less productive in memory retrieval and signal transmission. Reductions in
acetylcholine may be responsible for memory loss associated with Alzheimer’s disease,
whereas decreases in GABA, the entity responsible for ensuring efficient transmission of
signals, affect precision between neurons. Fortunately for young adults, the accompanying
losses in cognitive performance and memory are not noticed until much later in life. Outcomes
can be improved with physical activity, intellectual engagement, proper diet, and social
interactions beginning in early adulthood (Chang et al., 2014).
Special Developmental Issues in Early Adulthood
While the average person achieves the stages discussed in the previous sections, it is important
to remember that many adults have a wider range of experiences or never reach these
milestones at all. For example, a person’s outlook on midlife decline and available social
supports influence the propensity to develop mental health disorders, use drugs, and
experience good or bad physical health (Kim, Tiberio, Pears, Capaldi, & Washburn, 2013;
Umberson & Montez, 2010). Early adulthood development is, therefore, influenced by both
genetics and environment. Following is a description of some of the developmental issues that
may impair normal early adulthood development as well as a discussion on the influence of
both environment and genetics on the early adult’s development of disorders.
Mental Health Disorders
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Counselors who work with early adults must be willing to work with diverse clients on a wide
range of problems. Because those in their 20s and 30s can face both typical and atypical
developmental issues ranging from mental and physical health disorders to exceptional
abilities, counselors need a wide range of skills and expertise to be of assistance. Because this
chapter focuses on physical and cognitive development, discussion will focus on topics related
to these areas. Later chapters will go into more detail on emotional and relationship issues
faced by early adults.
Up to 75% of diagnosable mental health disorders are evident by age 24 years (Murphy, 2014),
and many are related to physical and cognitive development leading up to and during early
adulthood. For example, disorders typically treated in early adulthood include anxiety and
panic disorders, depressive disorders, addictions, eating disorders, schizophrenia, acute stress
disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and self-injury (Lyons & Barclay, 2014; Murphy,
2014). A description of some common disorders emerging in young adulthood and reciprocally
influencing development follows.
Panic disorder is one of the most common fear and anxiety disorders emerging in young
adulthood. It typically begins between adolescence and the mid-30s and affects up to 5% of the
population (APA, 2013; Lyons & Barclay, 2014). Those experiencing panic disorder
experience frequent and unexpected panic attacks characterized by the feeling one is having a
heart attack or stroke or is going to die. These attacks cause such fear the person often makes
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lifestyle changes to avoid additional panic attacks, including avoiding places, social events,
and other normal developmental parts of life. Biologically, panic attacks affect the amygdala
and other parts of the brain involved in the regulation of fear and emotional arousal. Many
theorists also believe those who experience panic attacks developed an overly sensitive fear
network in the brain. Other theorists contend that a lack of GABA, which also inhibits anxiety,
causes the disorder (Lyons & Barclay, 2014). Fortunately, many with panic disorder respond
positively to caffeine avoidance, medications, and cognitive therapy (National Institute on
Mental Health, n.d).
Major depressive disorder is the most frequently diagnosed disorder among young adults and
co-occurs with physical issues such as cancer, diabetes, and heart conditions (Lyons &
Barclay, 2014; Mayo Clinic, 2012). Further, depression shows comorbidity when diagnosing
anxiety, substance abuse, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders. Approximately 15% of those
diagnosed with a depressive disorder commit suicide (APA, 2000).
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People between the ages of 18 and 24 years are at highest risk for substance use disorders
(APA, 2013). Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, and Schulenberg (2009) studied drinking trends
for early adults (aged 19–28 years) and stated that 5.3% drank daily with 42% of those aged
21–22 years reporting having consumed at least five drinks in a row within the past 2 weeks.
Drugs and alcohol impede development with consequences such as heart disease, stroke,
cancer, hepatitis, lung disease, liver damage, kidney damage, neurological impairment, stunted
growth, hormone imbalances, and inflammation of the stomach (Chen et al., 2012; National
Institute on Drug Abuse, n.d.).
Those at highest risk for anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are White females in
adolescence to early adulthood living in Western industrialized nations (Lyons & Barclay,
2014). Anorexia nervosa is typically seen in females aged 15-24 years and is defined by three
major symptoms: fear of weight gain, altered perception of body size, and refusal to ingest
sufficient calories to maintain healthy body weight (APA, 2013). Bulimia nervosa is an eating
disorder affecting up to 1.5% of females, and onset is 5 years later than that experienced with
anorexia nervosa (Lyons & Barclay, 2014). Both disorders result in physical deterioration and
interruption of normal development. According to the Mayo Clinic (2012), heart problems,
organ failure, bone loss, stunted growth, digestive problems, kidney damage, severe tooth
decay, increased or decreased blood pressure, and death are the physical consequences of
eating disorders. Studies suggest a strong genetic link in family members experiencing anorexia
nervosa (Fairburn & Harrison, 2003) and heritability estimates between 50% and 83% for
bulimia nervosa (Striegel-Moore & Bulik, 2007).
Self-injury is an increasingly common phenomenon for those between the ages of 18 and 35
years. Researchers contend that those who have been abandoned by parents or have been
sexually or physically abused are at particular risk (Maniglio, 2011). Since self-injury is
comorbid with substance use disorder, depressive disorders, and antisocial personality
disorder and can result in accidental suicide, it is an impediment to normal growth and
development in early adulthood.
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Cognitive and Learning Disabilities
Most learning and cognitive disabilities affect young children or older adults but can also
affect the functioning of many early adults. Learning disabilities affect up to 4% of the adult
population, and many decisions made by adults between the ages of 20 and 40 years affect
future cognitions. Choices made about substance use and physical activities that increase risk
of head trauma can affect brain functioning and impairment in later years (Lyons & Barclay,
2014).
Giftedness
Gifted adults tend to exhibit high levels of self-monitoring, perfectionism, personal insight, and
metacognition (Shore & Kanevsky, 1993). They demonstrate high levels of postformal,
dialectical, and relativist thinking (Lewis, Kitano, & Lynch, 1992). Despite these positive
traits, many gifted adults report feeling isolated, misunderstood, and shamed. In fact, many
gifted adults feel less cognitively developed than their peers and report an inability to fit into
society (Jacobsen, n.d.). Cognitive development among gifted adults is often unrecognized and
can be greatly influenced by both their past and future environments. Whether a gifted person
copes well with anxiety, spends time alone, or uses intellect to fulfill emotional needs has been
linked to a supportive family environment (Olszewski-Kubilius, 2010).
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Environment
Regardless of age, environmental conditions are linked to cognitive and physical health.
Power, Manor, and Matthews (2003) found that low socioeconomic status predicted health risk
at birth, ages 16, 23, and 33 years. According to Weaver (2009), “sequelae of early life social
and environmental stressors, such as childhood abuse, neglect, poverty, and poor nutrition,
have been associated with the emergence of mental and physical illness (i.e., anxiety, mood
disorders, poor impulse control, psychosis, and drug abuse) and an increased risk of common
metabolic and cardiovascular diseases later in life” (p. 314). Early environmental influences
can also alter brain development such that stress responsivity throughout life is altered. Even at
later ages, however, high blood pressure, Alzheimer’s disease, obesity, cardiovascular
disease, and cognitive decline can be reduced through exercise, diet, stress reduction, and
counseling (Collins & Bentz, 2009).
Some environmental influences are directly related to personal decisions made throughout the
lifetime. For example, a person’s career choice impacts exposure to physical labor, chemicals,
and for those in the armed forces, even violence and death.
Career-Related Issues
Negative developmental environments are often consequences of particular occupations. For
example, some young adults choose jobs requiring demanding physical labor resulting in early
physical deterioration. Others choose careers such as serving in the armed forces. This
military career often means winding up in the midst of war as well as exposure to live images
of death and violence. This, along with required participation in these violent acts, has an
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effect on an early adult’s cognitive development.
Box 13.8: Military Experiences and Development
Brad is a devoted father and husband who served as a sergeant in the Air Force. While
serving a 6-month deployment in Afghanistan, Brad witnessed the deaths of other soldiers
—including his roommate. Brad and his family were very excited the day he arrived
home. It didn’t take long to notice, however, that Brad had changed dramatically. Brad was
extremely depressed, could not concentrate on work or hobbies, and was having
nightmares. He was screaming at his son regularly because he couldn’t tolerate the sounds
of his son laughing and playing like a normal child. What might be causing Brad’s
problems?
Genetics
Although environment plays a role in the aging process, it is important to understand that,
despite all efforts made, genes do influence every aspect of development (Harvard School of
Public Health, 2015). Genetic theories posit that aging occurs as a result of biological
programming, whereas nongenetic theories or error theories emphasize that environmental
influences contribute to physical and mental decline. Following are synopses of a few of these
theories.
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The genetic theory of aging is a programmed theory whereby a person’s life span and
degeneration is believed to be controlled by biological genes given to the person at birth. For
example, animals tend to have approximately the same lifespan as others within their species.
The theory further posits that children are expected to live the same length of time as their
parents and grandparents (Stibich, 2014a).
The wear-and-tear theory states that the body simply wears out over time. Metabolism, body
temperature, and inherent genetic traits are believed to play a role in the process. For example,
animals with slow metabolic rates and lower body temperatures tend to live longer than their
counterparts. Exposure to radiation and toxins exacerbate the decline (Stibich, 2014b).
The mutation theory describes a process where the body develops genetic mutations with age.
As one cell mutates, others follow suit through replication. The result is damaged DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and less efficient bodily functioning. While this process sounds
primarily genetic, many believe exposure to radiation expedites the process (Stibich, 2013).
Nature or Nurture?
Although these theories offer possible understanding of the genetic aging process, no theory
can definitively predict how much of the process is within the control of the individual. We do
know that genetics is believed to account for up to 35% of the normal aging process for the
population at large, with another 65% controlled by environmental factors and personal
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choices (Stibich, 2014c). These percentages illustrate the importance of making good choices
and the positive impact those decisions can have on the aging process. As a result, counselors
must offer accurate information to clients so they make personal choices that offer the best
future outcome.
Key Counseling Pointers for Physical Development
During Early Adulthood
Many of the boxes in this chapter contain case studies with counseling-related questions.
Following are possible responses to these case studies based on counseling theory, standard of
practice, and the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2014). Responses are
given, but it is important to remember that numerous possibilities often exist. It may be helpful
to compare your responses with those given here and evaluate the relevance of each.
Conceptualizing the Case of Carmela (Box 13.1)
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Carmela clearly misunderstands the importance of prevention when it comes to the aging
process. Should the counselor advise Carmela to change her unhealthy habits? First, let us
consider the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2014), section A.1.a. Client
Welfare: “The primary responsibility of counselors is to respect the dignity and promote the
welfare of clients” (p. 4). Obviously, ignoring Carmela’s poor choices is not in the client’s best
interest. Rather than offering advice to Carmela, however, a better approach is to give accurate
information so she understands the connection between early behaviors, chronic disease, and
physical decline. This might be stated as: “Research has been conducted inferring that the
earlier a person engages in healthy eating and exercise behaviors, the great the likelihood they
will avoid chronic disease and delay some effects of aging” (August & Sorkin, 2011).
Confrontations may also play an important role in helping Carmela see the behavior through a
different lens as well as motivate her to begin exercising.
Since Carmela is 20 years old and age of client affects motivation to exercise, the counselor
may need specific techniques. Quindry and colleagues (2011) stated that adults in Carmela’s
age group are most likely to exercise as a result of fitness or interpersonal goals. This being
the case, the counselor might confront Carmela with phrases such as, “You say you want to be
fit, yet you do not participate in regular exercise.” Interpersonal areas might be challenged by
asking, “Who else would notice that you were more fit?” Counselors have the ability and
responsibility to help clients such as Carmela make informed decisions and alter unhealthy
habits.
Conceptualizing the Case of Lloyd (Box 13.2)
Lloyd just turned 35 years old, and his body no longer repairs itself as efficiently as it did
when he was younger. This degeneration is exacerbated by his drinking and poor diet. Alcohol
consumption dehydrates the body, leading to dry skin, enlarged blood vessels, and, over time,
high blood pressure. Heavy drinking is defined as consuming more than two drinks daily for
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males under age 65 years (Sheps, 2015). It is not surprising, therefore, that, when combined
with the natural aging process, Lloyd is experiencing effects from his drinking.
Lloyd’s consumption of sugar further harms his body. Large quantities of sugar decrease
collagen production in the skin, contribute to weight gain, and can eventually lead to chronic
illness. The earlier in life Lloyd adopts healthy eating habits, the less likely he will be to
develop cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and some cancers. This is especially crucial for
Lloyd since research infers that, as an African American, he is more likely to adopt unhealthy
dietary and sedentary behaviors than non-Hispanic Whites (August & Sorkin, 2010).
Lloyd’s counselor must offer information to alleviate confusion about the harm he is doing his
body. Even though this sounds much like Carmela’s case, a couple of differences exist. First,
Lloyd’s age places him in the middle-aged adult category and therefore alters motivational
factors. Quindry et al. (2011) stated that middle-aged adults such as Lloyd are primarily
motivated to exercise for body-related reasons. For this reason, Lloyd might be reminded that
fitness improves appearance and alcohol causes weight gain, which diminishes attractiveness.
Another important consideration involves the aging impact of Lloyd’s drinking. Chen and
colleagues (2012) stated that impaired liver functioning, a consequence of heavy drinking, is
correlated with brain shrinkage and cognitive decline in later life. The counselor may need to
confront Lloyd about his drinking, determine if he has an addiction, and help him understand
how it may be impeding socialization (Borelli, 2014; MedicineNet, 2015).
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Conceptualizing the Case of Ben and Fran (Box 13.3)
Ben and Fran have been trying to conceive a child for many years without success, and it
seems apparent Fran is suffering from a medical condition referred to as infertility. Infertility
can cause depression, anxiety, relationship problems, mood swings, changes in appetite and
sleep, sexual difficulties, and even suicide ideation. Fran and Ben would be wise to see a
couples’ counselor specializing in fertility issues. This counselor will educate Fran and Ben
about infertility by suggesting they read informative books, Internet sites, and brochures. The
counselor might also suggest group counseling sessions with other couples experiencing
similar difficulties. These sessions can offer support to Ben and Fran, as can sharing with their
family and friends.
Counseling sessions should focus on Fran and Ben’s fear of the medical procedures,
possibilities of failure as related to treatment continuation or termination, possibilities for a
fulfilling life without children or adoption, and relationship issues including sexuality,
intimacy, and finances. Couples often experience relationship difficulties due to the scheduling
of sexuality as well as blame and guilt experienced by both parties.
Ben and Fran might consider personal counseling to manage the distress caused by feelings of
grief, frustration, pressures from family and society to conceive, failure at conception despite
treatment, and emotions influenced by waiting for results. Theories suggested as beneficial to
clients dealing with infertility include cognitive behavioral therapy, psychodynamic therapy,
solution focused brief therapy, crisis intervention, and process-experiential grief counseling
(Strauss & Boivin, n.d.). Both Ben and Fran need help establishing new methods of coping and
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specific techniques such as guided imagery and relaxation, Gestalt’s empty chair technique, and
future goal setting despite outcome.
Key Counseling Pointers for Cognitive Development
During Early Adulthood
Conceptualizing the Case of Bethany (Box 13.7)
It is not surprising Bethany has difficulty compromising since, at her age, she is probably
exhibiting dualistic thinking. This dualistic thinking is hindering Bethany in her philosophy
course, which requires an analysis of several points of view. Students often exhibit strong
emotions when being challenged to move to multiplistic thinking because additional frames of
reference challenge familiar concepts. To help Bethany advance to a more multiplistic way of
thinking, the counselor or instructor must ask open-ended thought provoking questions such as,
“Tell me what it would be like if you had to do this differently.” The counselor might ask
Bethany to explore her friend’s viewpoints by switching roles or even having her act out the
part of her friend. This requires Bethany to recognize that several viewpoints and options are
possible rather than simply adopting a single “correct” or dualistic stance. It will also be
important to monitor Bethany’s emotions, reflect, and reframe as needed. Counselors must
recognize that relativistic thinking does not always occur in perfect sequence and, as a result,
Bethany may gravitate to dualistic thinking even after previously exhibiting multiplistic levels
(Carnegie Mellon, n.d.). Bethany’s counselor must therefore have the patience to challenge
Bethany and use immediacy as she recognizes her own frustrations in accepting differing
views.
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Conceptualizing the Case of Brad (Box 13.8)
Brad is a young soldier who is probably experiencing acute stress disorder. First listed in the
American Psychiatric Association’s (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, fourth edition, (DSM-IV), in 1994, acute stress disorder is similar to posttraumatic
stress disorder but must occur within and last no longer than 1 month after exposure to the
traumatizing event.
Clinicians can validate Brad’s possible ASD diagnosis through appearance and behavior,
interviews, and testing. First, the counselor must determine when Brad’s traumatizing event
occurred and how long the symptoms have been evident. Interviewing Brad and his family
(with Brad’s permission) can help distinguish between acute stress reaction (ASR), a
nondiagnosable condition; ASD; and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). If Brad
demonstrates signs of ASR, he will describe symptoms occurring minutes to hours after the
traumatizing event and disappearing hours to a few days later. ASD may be present if
symptoms last up to 1 month, whereas PTSD lasts beyond a month (U.S. Department of
Veteran’s Affairs, 2014). Instruments such as The Acute Stress Disorder Interview (ASDI) or
the Acute Stress Disorder Scale (ASDS) are valid and reliable instruments that might be used
to further confirm Brad’s diagnosis.
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If it is determined Brad has ASD, he needs an effective intervention. Treatments that have
shown promise and might be used to treat Brad’s ASD include: cognitive behavioral therapy,
psychological debriefing, and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (Gibson, 2014).
Along with the aforementioned treatments, Brad’s counselor should offer education about his
disorder and help him manage his symptoms with techniques such as relaxation. Brad should
be encouraged to take any prescribed psychotropic medications given to him by his doctors
and to create a supportive network with others. This supportive network might include other
soldiers suffering from ASD, his family, and friends (U.S. Department of Veteran’s Affairs,
2014).
Family and career counseling may also benefit Brad and his family. Family counseling will
teach Brad’s wife how to support him as he struggles through this challenge. Brad may also
need help with career-related issues such as applying for disability since ASD causes
cognitive and emotional problems that can impede his work performance.
Counseling Tips for Stage Transition in Early Adults
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The information presented in this chapter discusses relevant issues related to counselingspecific issues faced by early adults. The following information is given to guide counselors
working with early adults as they transition through normal developmental stages. Because
many of the developmental issues faced by early adults involve personal choices, counselors
are in optimal positions to assist young adults as they explore unforeseen territory and chart
life’s path. Table 13.1 depicts early adulthood through three distinct transitional stages (ages
18–24 years, ages 24–35 years, and ages 35–40 years) and offers specific suggestions
counselors can use to help clients functioning within each level. As always, consult the
American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2014) and other relevant codes when
choosing strategies to work with clients.
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Table 13.1 Transitional Stages
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Developmental Developmental Tasks
Suggested Counseling Strategies
Level (Age)
18–24 years
Transition to academic or
Give information about consequences of drug
career world; adjust to new use, sexuality, financial options, study skills,
freedoms and independence; career information; empathize with the client
accept financial responsibility as he or she faces consequences of mistakes;
suggest mentorships as appropriate
Teach stress management skills
Help clients balance time and energy
Make referrals to group or career counseling
as needed
24–34 years
Accept first signs of drop in Empathize
physical stamina; develop
Encourage mentorships
relationships; establish a
Teach stress management skills
career and goals; balance
Encourage career passion
career, relationship, and
Make referrals to groups or career counseling
family needs
as needed
Encourage a balance between family,
relationship, career, and personal time
35–40 years
Accept signs of physical
Suggest fulfillment through social interest
decline; maintain career;
activities including career mentorship;
accept realization that goals normalize and empathize with the client’s
may be unfulfilled
experience
Discern the value of what has been
accomplished and what is left to do
Make referrals to group or career counseling
as needed
Summary
Early adulthood is typically a time of optimal physical and cognitive development. The body is
at its strongest, and age has not yet affected appearance. The brain fully develops and logical,
postformal thought evolves. Decreases in physical stamina and appearance do not appear until
after age 30 years. With proper exercise, diet, environment, and life choices, early adults can
offset the negative impacts of aging that come during middle and late adulthood. Counselors
can help early adults through normal developmental issues as well as atypical developmental
disorders using numerous counseling theories and techniques as well as information aimed at
promoting client health and wellness.
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Useful Websites
American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2014)
http://counseling.org/Resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf
Association of Reproductive Health Professionals
http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/quick-reference-guide-forclinicians/postpartum-counseling/mental-health
American Society for Reproductive Medicine
http://www.reproductivefacts.org
Early Adult Career Assistance
http://www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/early-adulthood-development.html
Mental Health America
http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder
National Institutes on Mental Health
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml#pub8
Understanding Mental Illness
http://www.thekimfoundation.org/html/about_mental_ill/by_population-youngadult.html
Young Adult Development Project
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http://hrweb.mit.edu/worklife/youngadult/brain.html#cortexTables
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Chapter 16
Middle Adulthood: Emotional and Social Development
Dilani M. Perera-Diltz Andrew J. Intagliata, and John M. Laux
What is middle adulthood? We know that it comes some significant time after being in the 20s.
When you think of someone being in middle adulthood, what comes to mind? Write these
thoughts on a piece of paper and see how it compares with what you read in the next several
pages. Is middle adulthood defined by an established age range, by identifiable changes in the
biological being, or by accomplishment of certain life tasks? Does what is considered middle
adulthood change as life expectancy changes? Will life expectancy continue to rise? Is there a
ceiling to life expectancy? Is middle adulthood a time of emotional and social development or
merely a period through which we pass time in the aging process? This chapter provides you
with information pertaining to emotional and social factors related to middle adulthood,
including answers to the previous questions that are related to emotional and social factors.
Copyright © 2016. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Middle adulthood is a time when our influence on society peaks, and in turn society demands
maximum social and civic responsibility. It can also be a time of doubt and despair depending
on your developmental path and the decisions made through the previous years of life. For
example, if you are successful in your career; are stable financially; live comfortably; have
decent relationships with your significant other, family, children, and others; and have good
health, then your middle adulthood years can be full of goals and responsibilities. Even
securing a modicum combination of these achievements can provide future expectations and
responsibilities. However, if life circumstances left you significantly lacking in one or more of
these areas, then middle adulthood can be a time of turbulence.
Scholars studying the human passage from birth to death have theorized about lifespan
development. Operating under the assumption that there are certain pathways and tasks to be
accomplished along life’s journey, theorists have proposed theories of adult development that
recognize adulthood as a period of active physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
development (Wortley & Amatea, 1982). These theorists have postulated philosophies and
notions about the aspects of change that occur during middle adulthood. These postulates rest
on a second assumption that middle adulthood changes are a result of either internal genetic
factors, external age-related life events, or a combination of both (Wortley & Amatea, 1982).
Theorists have provided some guidance on the sequence of change, the catalysts for change,
and how to adapt successfully to such changes in middle adulthood (Wortley & Amatea, 1982).
Before we look at what theorists have provided to guide our understanding of middle
adulthood and its advantages and challenges, let us introduce you to Rick, who is in his middle
adulthood years.
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Box 16.1: Does What Is Considered Middle
Adulthood Change as Life Expectancy Changes?
Life expectancy has almost doubled within the last century. Life expectancy in 1900 for
males of all races was 46.3 years and for females it was 48.3 years (Center for Disease
Control [CDC]/National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS], 2013). This expectancy
was even lower for African Americans. In 1900, African American males’ life expectancy
was 32.5 years and females’ was 33.5 years (CDC/NCHS, 2013). A century later, life
expectancy had significantly increased for all races, with males at 74.1 years and females
at 79.3 years. African American males’ and females’ life expectancies more than doubled,
to ages 68.2 years and 75.1 years, respectively. By 2011, the American life expectancy
continued to increase. Males of all races were expected to live to age 76.3 years and
females to 81.1 years (CDC/NCHS, 2013). You can check your life expectancy at
http://www.ssa.gov/planners/benefitcalculators.htm.
Discussion Questions
1. Will life expectancy continue to rise? Is there a ceiling to life expectancy? Support
your answer. What factors do you think have contributed to the increase in the lifespan
over the past century? What social and emotional outcomes are associated with
increase in lifespan?
2. If age range is what determines middle age, then has what is classified as middle age
changed from 1900 to 2015?
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3. If life tasks determine middle age, then how might they have changed with the societal
changes in the United States?
Rick is a Caucasian male in his late 40s. He is working in a career of his choice. He has been
at his present job for about 17 years and has recently been promoted to a managerial position.
As a consequence of the promotion, he earns more, works longer hours, and manages others at
work. Rick is remarried and has two biological children and two stepchildren. One child is
from his current marriage. Out of all four children, the oldest child has been accepted to and
attends university, and the youngest is in middle school. Rick’s wife also works in a career of
her choice. Her workplace is very stressful, and she often brings work stress home. Rick’s
current relationship with his first wife is volatile. His current wife’s ex-spouse is supportive
with the raising of their children and flexible in scheduling visits. Rick recently learned that his
aging parents may no longer be able to live independently due to his father’s failing health and
his mother’s deteriorating memory issues. Their failing health has made Rick aware of his own
needs to save for his retirement and for some inheritance for his children. Rick does not want
to burden his wife with his responsibilities to his work, his parents, or his children.
We will provide thought-provoking questions related to Rick’s case at the end of each theory.
Our hope is that you will read the theory a couple of times and understand what each theory has
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to offer for conceptualization and treatment planning with clients in their middle adulthood. We
will provide our conceptualization of the various case vignettes presented throughout this
chapter at the end of the chapter. Certainly, there is not a single method to conceptualize a case.
It may benefit you to document some of your thoughts related to the vignette questions as you go
along and see how those compare with our conceptualizations.
Theories on Emotional and Social Development in
Middle Adulthood
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First we turn to theory as it helps us decrease or manage uncertainty and make more
responsible ethical decisions (Ettinger, 1991). There are a sufficient number of theories of
adult development available to the reader. As you read the next couple of pages of theory, pay
attention to the theorist’s lifespan, provided within parentheses after the theorist’s name, to
grasp a better understanding of how the theory may have been influenced by the views of the
theorist’s time. For the ease of remembering, we have categorized theories as stage and task
theories of development and provided only basic information that will help in client
conceptualization and treatment planning options. Important theorists to consider include Jean
Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik Erikson, Daniel Levinson, Roger Gould, Bernice Neugarten,
George Vaillant, and Robert Havighurst. The following sections are written based on the
assumption that these theorists and their views have been explored earlier in this text.
Consequently, only portions of the respective theories that are specific to persons in middle
adulthood will be explored herein.
Let’s start with someone most associated with being a seminal author about cognitive
development: Jean Piaget. Piaget (1896–1980) provided a four-stage theory for cognitive
development by observing and talking with children. Chapter 2 provides an in-depth
discussion of his theory, so here we provide you some practical information so we can relate
this information to the case of Rick. This theory proposes that from birth to 2 years is
sensorimotor development; from 2 to 7 years is preoperational cognitive development; from 7
to 11 years is concrete operational development; and from 11 years onward is formal
operational development (Atherton, 2013). What is of relevance to the middle adulthood
period is concrete operational thought development (i.e, the ability to think logically about
objects and events) and formal operational thought (i.e., the ability to think logically about
abstract concepts). Although it is reasonable to assume from the given age ranges that by age
11 years a child will be moving to formal operational thought processes, Piaget’s stages have
been critiqued as being too rigid. For example, some children achieve concrete operational
functions earlier than Piaget theorized, and some adults display an inability to perform formal
operational thought (Atherton, 2013; Wood, Smith, & Grossniklaus, 2001). The value of formal
operational thinking may be tied to Western cultural values to the exclusion of other cultures’
focus on concrete operational thinking (Edwards, Hopgood, Rosenberg, & Rush, 2000).
Finally, Piaget’s methods on which his theory is based have received criticism as lacking
scientific rigor (Edwards et al., 2000).
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Piaget believed that we acquire knowledge through the use of certain skills, which he called
schemas. What we call learning is the schema of adaptation. Adaption requires the ability to
assimilate, use previous knowledge to incorporate a new object and accommodate, and adjust
previous knowledge to incorporate knowledge about the new object. Piaget considered
equilibrium as the balance between existing knowledge and new learning.
As we graduate through our stages of cognitive development, the schemas become more
complex. During the concrete operational stage, for instance, we learn classification, the
ability to group together objects that have similar characteristics. Another schema,
conservation, is the ability to understand that initial quantity remains the same, even when
objects of that quantity are rearranged. Reversibility is the ability to understand that when an
object, such as clay, is changed in shape it can be changed back into its original shape in a
different pattern or a different container. Seriation is the ability to put objects in order or in a
pattern. During the formal operational stage, we are able to hypothesize about concepts that are
not in our presence. The use of the above mentioned schemas become more multifaceted. For
instance, the classifications are done at higher complexity. These terms aid in discussing our
ability to perform certain cognitive tasks. (The section at the end of the chapter provides more
information on the Jean Piaget Society, which contains great resources for students interested
in learning more about his theory.)
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Considering the case of Rick, what are the indicators that Rick is using either concrete or
formal operational thought in processing his current life issues? Do you see where Rick may
need to use formal operational thought? Which concepts would be helpful in communicating
about what is cognitively occurring within Rick?
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) is best known as the stage theorist who offered a theory of
moral development. In doing so, Kohlberg argued that moral reasoning is correlated with
ethical behavior. His six stages fall under three levels: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional morality (Kohlberg, [1968, 1976]). Preconventional morality includes stage
1 (obedience), during which behavior choices are based on avoiding punishment, and stage 2
(individualism), during which behavior is based on a self-interested exchange for personal
fulfillment. Conventional morality in stage 3 is related to maintaining individual relationships,
such as conforming to social normatives, and in stage 4 it is related to adherence to law and
order. Within level 3’s postconventional morality, during stage 5 (social contract orientation)
we engage in decision making based on fundamental rights of others. During stage 6, behavior
is based on upholding a set of ethical principles that are applied universally, such as justice
(Kohlberg, [1968, 1976]). Although Kohlberg’s model is heavily influenced by Piaget’s views,
it does not suppose that moral development is tied to a particular age range. Consequently,
counselors should be prepared to work with middle adulthood persons whose moral reasoning
falls into any of these six stages.
Let’s apply Kohlberg’s theory to the case of Rick. If Rick makes a decision to relocate closer to
his parents, in what stage of morality would you consider he is engaging during his decisionmaking process? What conflict might he face when attempting to maintain all relationships in
his current situation? What are some ways a counselor may help him recognize, evaluate, and
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address any conflicts that he experiences?
A lifespan stage theorist, Erik Erikson (1902–1994) proposed an eight-stage, age-normative
developmental theory based on psychosocial development across the lifespan. After his death,
his wife published the ninth stage of psychosocial development. Newman and Newman (2012)
expanded this theory to 11 stages. Here we focus only on middle adulthood, during which we
are faced with resolving the psychosocial crisis of generativity versus stagnation (Erikson,
1963). Erikson’s theory considers middle adulthood to consist of ages 34–60 years.
Generativity is defined as concern and well-being of future generations, whereas stagnation is
the lack of such. Positive resolution of this psychosocial crisis leads to the prime adaptive ego
quality of caring (Erikson). Caring is evidenced through a commitment and concern for the next
generation. Core pathology emerges as a result of negative or ineffective resolution of this
crisis, resulting in rejectivity or an willingness to include others in our generative concerns
(Erikson, 1963). Further, Erikson viewed persons in this age range to be in one of two states of
career development. Erikson expected workers to either be comfortable with and making
progress in their careers or experiencing uncertainty about their career directions. Coping
strategies most useful during this stage are flexibility, creative problem solving, and a sense of
humor.
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Using Erikson’s psychosocial theory, what is Rick’s status on the continuum between
generativity and stagnation? If Rick came to see a counselor to discuss his placement on this
continuum, how do you think his counselor could assist Rick to resolve his psychosocial crisis
of generativity versus stagnation so that he could emerge with caring and concern for future
generations?
Human Growth and Development Across the Lifespan : Applications for Counselors, edited by David Capuzzi, and Mark D. Stauffer, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest
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Box 16.2: The Struggle Against Stagnation in Middle
Adulthood
Middle adulthood can be a time when people have many different roles (Havinghurst,
1972). However, when the number of those roles starts to decrease due to impending
retirement, job loss, or children moving out of the home, those in middle adulthood may
need to find different avenues that could help against stagnation. Creative arts may be one
option for individuals dealing with role changes in middle adulthood. An activity such as
quilting has been shown to help resolve this crisis of generativity and stagnation, as it
allows individuals in middle adulthood to contribute to family, friends, and younger
generations (Cheek & Piercy, 2008). Although this activity may not be for all, it is an
example of how those in middle adulthood can find new activities to combat the feelings
of stagnation. Volunteering has also been found to be satisfying (Kulik, 2010), but it is
important to remember that middle adulthood covers a number of years. Two adults in
middle adulthood may have vastly different views and experiences. Those in middle
adulthood with many roles and activities may find volunteering less substantial to wellbeing (Yunqing & Ferraro, 2006), and a study of individuals in this age group found
middle-aged participants to perceive their volunteer contributions as less than youngeraged counterparts (Kulik, 2010).
Discussion Questions
1. How might your conversation about generativity versus stagnation with a 45-year-old
parent differ from a discussion with a 60-year-old parent?
Copyright © 2016. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
2. What techniques might you use with a middle-aged client who comes to you with
concerns about stagnation?
Age-based sequential theorist Daniel Levinson (1920–1994) proposed a social psychological
stage theory known as seasons of life, with four eras approximately 25 years in length each.
The childhood and adolescence era lasts from birth to about age 20 years, early adulthood
from about age 20–45 years, middle adulthood from 40 to about 65 years, and late adulthood
from 65 years onward. Although Levinson studied men and women separately, he found that
they went through the same eras and transitional periods of life, with the main difference being
in the information of the dream or vision, goals, and aspirations for an ideal life (Brown,
1987). Males set the dream, which is often career related, between ages 22 and 28 years, but
women struggle with the dream, with a dichotomy of identity between career woman and
family.
Each of Levinson’s eras includes a 3–6-year transitional period, which may be an unsettling
time due to questioning, challenging, and adapting to new venues. Eras also include other
stages. During the middle adulthood era, midlife transition occurs between ages 40 and 45
years, during which we typically evaluate our lives. Such evaluation may lead to crisis such as
divorce or a change in career. Entering middle adulthood occurs between ages 45 and 50
Human Growth and Development Across the Lifespan : Applications for Counselors, edited by David Capuzzi, and Mark D. Stauffer, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest
Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ncent-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4405838.
Created from ncent-ebooks on 2023-05-29 16:5…

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