Think of a coach that you felt was a great leader and explain what made him/her a great leader. What modeling, verbal instruction and punishment did they incorporate in their training?
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Answer the question fully using at least 10 sentences using details and examples for each question.
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PART IV
Understanding
Group Processes
Chapter 7—Group and Team
Dynamics
Chapter 8—Group Cohesion
Chapter 9—Leadership
Chapter 10—Communication
CHAPTER 7
Group and Team Dynamics
Session Outline
Group and Team Dynamics
How Groups and Teams Differ
Theories of Group Development
Group Structure
Creating an Effective Team Climate
Social Support
Individual and Team Performance in Sport
Transition or Disengagement for Teams
Group and Team Dynamics
Why study groups?
“Talent wins games, but teamwork wins
championships”—NBA great Michael Jordan
“Teamwork is the essence of life”—NBA coach
Pat Riley
Almost any position in the sport and exercise
field requires understanding of the processes
and dynamics of groups.
To understand behavior in sport and physical
activity, we must consider the nature of sport
and exercise groups.
What Is a Group?
Group
A collection of interacting individuals who share
a collective identity,
a sense of shared purpose or objectives,
structured modes of communication,
personal or task interdependence (or both), and
interpersonal attraction.
How Groups and Teams Differ
A team is any group of individuals who must
interact with each other to accomplish common
goals.
All teams are groups, but not all groups are
teams.
Team members have to depend on and support
one another to accomplish shared objectives
(they have interdependency and common
goals).
Theories of Group Development
The linear perspective
The cyclical (life cycle) perspective
The pendular perspective
The Linear Perspective
Forming
Familiarization, formation of interpersonal
relationships, development of team structure
Storming
Rebellion, resistance to the leader and to control by
the group, interpersonal conflict
The Linear Perspective
Norming
Development of solidarity and cooperation,
stabilization of team roles, effort to achieve economy
of effort and effectiveness
Performing
Channeling of energies for team success
The Cyclical (Life Cycle) Perspective
Development of groups is similar to the life
cycle—birth, growth, and death.
Emphasis is on the terminal phase of the
group’s existence.
As the group develops, it psychologically
prepares for its own breakup.
This model is especially relevant for physical
activity (exercise) groups and recreation teams
that last 10 to 15 weeks.
The Pendular Perspective
Shifts occur in interpersonal relationships
during the growth and development of groups.
Groups do not progress through linear phases.
Stages of group development:
1. Orientation
2. Differentiation and conflict
3. Resolution and cohesion
4. Differentiation and conflict
5. Termination
Group Structure
Group Roles
Behaviors required or expected of a person occupying
a certain position
Group Structure
Formal Roles (e.g., Coach, Instructor, Captain)
Formal roles are dictated by the nature and structure of
the organization. Each of these roles carries specific
associated expectations. Usually, individuals are
either trained or recruited to fill specific roles
Informal Roles (e.g., Enforcer, Mediator)
Informal roles evolve from the group’s dynamics or
interactions among group members.
Group Structure
Both role clarity and role acceptance are critical
for team success.
Role conflict exists when despite the presence
of consenus on a desired goal or outcome, the
role occupant does not have sufficient ability,
motivation, time, or understanding to achieve
that goal (e.g., “wears too many hats”).
Group Structure
Group norms
A norm is a level of performance, pattern of
behavior, or belief.
Leaders need to establish positive group norms
or standards (especially standards or norms of
productivity).
Positive norms are important to establish.
Group Structure
Modifying team norms
The source of the communication is critical—
more credible, better liked, similar, attractive,
high-status, and powerful individuals are more
effective persuaders.
Speaking in a rapid (vs. slow, deliberate)
manner increases persuasiveness.
Modifying norms is more effective when both
sides of argument are presented and there are
multiple commonalities, novelty, and explicitly
stated conclusions.
Creating an Effective Team Climate
Social support: Mutual respect and support
enhance team climate.
Proximity: closer contact promotes team
interaction.
Distinctiveness: The more distinctive the group
feels, the better the climate.
(continued)
Creating an Effective Team Climate
Fairness: Fairness—or a lack of it—can bring a
group closer together or tear it apart. Coaches
should deal with athletes honestly, openly, and
fairly.
Similarity: Greater similarity = closer climate
Social Support
Social Support
An exchange of resources between at least two people
perceived by the provider and the recipient as intended
to enhance the well-being of the recipient
Social Support
Functions of social support
Provides appraisal, information, reassurance,
and companionship
Reduces uncertainty during times of stress
Aids in mental and physical recovery
Improves communication
Social Support
Seven Types of Social Support
1. Listening support
2. Emotional support
3. Emotional-challenge support
4. Reality-confirmation support
(continued)
Social Support
Seven Types of Social Support
5. Task-appreciation support
6. Task-challenge support
7. Personal-assistance support
Individual and Team
Performance in Sport
Basic Principle
While individual ability is important, the
individual abilities of team members alone
are not good predictors of how a team will
perform.
Individual and Team
Performance in Sport
Steiner’s model
Actual productivity = potential productivity –
losses due to faulty group processes.
Losses:
1. Motivation
2. Coordination
How Individual Skills
Relate to Group Performance
The greater the need for cooperation and
interaction in a task, the more the importance of
individual ability decreases and the importance
of group productivity increases.
Teams of equal ability tend to play best.
The Ringelmann Effect
Ringelmann Effect
The phenomenon by which individual performance
decreases as the number of people in the group
increases
Social Loafing
Social Loafing
The term psychologists use for the phenomenon in
which individuals within a group or team put forth less
than 100% effort due to losses in motivation
Conditions That Increase Social Loafing
An individual’s output cannot be independently
evaluated.
The task is perceived to be low on
meaningfulness.
An individual’s personal involvement in the task
is low.
A comparison against group standards is not
possible.
(continued)
Conditions That Increase Social Loafing
The individuals contributing to the collective
effort are strangers.
The individual’s teammates or coworkers are
seen as high in ability.
The Individual perceives that his contribution to
the outcome is redundant.
Eliminating Social Loafing
Emphasize the importance of individual pride
and unique contributions.
Increase identifiability of individual
performances.
Determine specific situations in which social
loafing occurs.
(continued)
Eliminating Social Loafing
Conduct individual meetings to discuss social
loafing.
Walk a mile in a teammate’s shoes.
Break down the team into smaller units.
Transition or Disengagement for Teams
KEY QUESTION—
How are teams affected by teammate departures
(e.g., due to injury, graduation, cutting, student
transfers, retirement, trades, or even disbanding
of the team)?
Transition or Disengagement for Teams
Facilitating smooth transitions
for teams
1. Clarify role differentiation.
2. Increase individual awareness of
disengagement.
3. Facilitate group interaction.
4. Negotiate closure and new group
development.
CHAPTER 8
Group Cohesion
Session Outline
Defining Cohesion
Carron’s Conceptual Model of Cohesion
Measuring Cohesion
The Cohesion-Performance Relationship
(continued)
Session Outline
Other Factors Associated With Cohesion
Building Cohesion
Exercise settings
Sport settings
Leader or coach strategies
Group member strategies
Defining Cohesion
Cohesion
“A dynamic process reflected in the tendency for a
group to stick together and remain united in the
pursuit of its goals and objectives” (Carron, 1982)
This underscores the notion that cohesion is (a)
multidimensional (many factors are related to why a
group sticks together), (b) dynamic (cohesion in a
group can change over time), (c) instrumental (groups
are created for a purpose), and (d) affective (members’
social interactions produce feelings among group
members)
Defining Cohesion
Task Cohesion
Reflects the degree to which group members work
together to achieve common goals and objectives
Social Cohesion
The interpersonal attractions among group members. It
reflects the degree to which members of a team like
each other and enjoy one another’s company
Carron’s Conceptual Model of Cohesion
Measuring Cohesion
Questionnaires (e.g., Group Environment
Questionnaire) focus on how attractive the group
is to the individual members and how the members
perceive the group.
Group integration—task subscale (e.g., Our
team is united in trying to reach its goals for
performance)
(continued)
Measuring Cohesion
Group integration—social subscale (e.g.,
Members of our team do not stick together
outside of practicing and games)
Individual attraction to group—task subscale
(e.g., I don’t like the style of play on this team)
Individual attraction to group—social subscale
(e.g., Some of my best friends are on the team)
Measuring Cohesion
A sociogram is a tool to measure social cohesion.
It discloses affiliation and attraction among group
members, including:
The presence or absence of cliques
Members’ perceptions of group closeness
Friendship choices within the group
The degree to which athletes perceive interpersonal
feelings similarly
Social isolation of individual group members
Extent of group attraction
Measuring Cohesion
Sociogram
The Cohesion-Performance
Relationship
On an intuitive level, you might assume that the higher
the level of a team’s cohesion, the greater its success.
Why else spend so much time trying to develop team
cohesion?
In fact most studies show that cohesion is positively
related to performance. However, there are several
studies that show a negative cohesion-performance
relationship. The relationship, however, depends on a
number of factors.
The Cohesion-Performance
Relationship
Types of measures
Positive cohesion-performance relationship with
task cohesion measures.
No cohesion-performance relationship with
social cohesion measures.
The Cohesion-Performance
Relationship
Task demands
Coacting teams (e.g., bowling and golf): There is
no cohesion-performance relationship.
Interacting teams (e.g., basketball, volleyball
and soccer): Cohesion increases performance.
Task Demands and the
Cohesion-Performance Relationship
The Cohesion-Performance
Relationship
Direction of Causality
Increased cohesion leads to greater
performance and brings teams together, which
leads to still more cohesion.
Nevertheless, the performance-to-cohesion
relationship appears stronger than the
cohesion-to-performance relationship.
Other Factors Associated With Cohesion
Team Satisfaction
Increased cohesion is related to increased satisfaction.
Conformity
Psychological research has shown that the more
cohesive the group, the more influence the group has
on its individual members. Thus, there is greater
pressure to conform to the attitudes and behaviors of
the group.
(continued)
Other Factors Associated With Cohesion
Adherence
More cohesive exercise classes have better
attendance, are more likely to arrive on time, are less
likely to drop out, are more resistant to disruption, are
more likely to experience positive affect related to
exercise, and have stronger efficacy for exercise.
Social Support
There is a positive relationship between the social
support an individual receives and that person’s
evaluation of group cohesion.
Other Correlates of Cohesion
Stability
Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption;
teams staying together longer tend to be more
cohesive.
Group Goals
Group goals are tied to group cohesion.
Building Cohesion
Exercise Settings
Exercise classes with high feelings of group cohesion
have fewer dropouts and late arrivals than do classes
low in cohesion.
Sport Settings
Team-building exercises, clear and meaningful roles,
team goals, communication, and selfishness/personal
sacrifice are related to increased cohesion.
Strategies Suggested
to Build Group Cohesiveness
Increase distinctiveness by
having a group name,
making a group T-shirt,
handing out neon shoelaces, or
making posters for class.
(See table 8.1 on p. 190 of text.)
Principles Underlying
the Team-Building Program
in a Sport Setting
Coaches used several underlying principles to
develop team-building programs, including
leadership, distinctiveness, and sacrifice.
(See table 8.2 on p. 192 of text.)
Guidelines for Building
Team Cohesion
What coaches or leaders can do
Communicate effectively.
Explain individual roles in team success.
Develop pride within subunits.
Set challenging team goals.
(continued)
Guidelines for Building
Team Cohesion
What coaches or leaders can do
Encourage team identity.
Discourage formation of social cliques.
Avoid excessive turnover.
(continued)
Guidelines for Building
Team Cohesion
What coaches or leaders can do
Conduct periodic team meetings.
Know the team climate.
Know something personal about each group
member.
Guidelines for Building
Team Cohesion
What group members can do
Get to know members of the group.
Help group members whenever possible.
Give group members positive reinforcement.
(continued)
Guidelines for Building
Team Cohesion
What group members can do
Be responsible.
Communicate honestly and openly with coach
or leader.
Resolve conflicts immediately.
Give 100% effort at all times.
CHAPTER 9
Leadership
Session Outline
What Is Leadership?
How Leaders Are Chosen
Functions of Leaders
Approaches to Studying Leadership
Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership
(continued)
Session Outline
Research on the Multidimensional Model of
Sport Leadership
Practical Implications: Four Components of
Effective Leadership
What Is Leadership?
Leadership
“The behavioral process of influencing individuals and
groups toward set goals” (Barrow, 1977, p. 32)
A leader knows where the group or team is going (i.e.,
its goals and objectives) and provides the direction
and resources to help it get there
Coaches who are good leaders provide not only a
vision of what to strive for but also the day-to-day
structure, motivation, and support to translate vision
into reality.
Leaders Versus Managers
Leaders and Managers
A manager takes care of such things as scheduling,
budgeting, and organizing, whereas a leader provides
vision and is more concerned with the direction of an
organization, including its goals and objectives.
How Leaders Are Chosen
Appointed Leaders
Individuals appointed by some authority to a
leadership position (e.g., health club manager, coach,
head athletic trainer)
Emergent Leaders
Individuals who emerge from a group and take charge
(e.g., captain of an intramural team, exercise class
student leader)
Functions of Leaders
To ensure that the demands of the organization
are satisfied in that the group is effective in
meeting its goals and objectives
To ensure that the needs of the group members
are satisfied
Approaches to Studying Leadership
Trait approach
Behavioral approach
Interactional approach
The Trait Approach
KEY QUESTION—
What personality characteristics are common to
great leaders?
RESULTS—
Leaders have a variety of personality
characteristics. There is no particular set of
personality traits that make a leader successful.
The Behavioral Approach
KEY QUESTION—
What are the universal behaviors (not traits) of
effective leaders?
LEADERS IN NONSPORT
SETTINGS—
Successful leaders use both “consideration”
(focus on friendship, mutual trust, respect) and
“initiating” (focus on rules, goals, and objectives)
structures.
The Behavioral Approach
Leaders in sport—instruction and
demonstration
Effective coaches focus on the positive while
providing clear feedback and technical
instruction.
For example, Coach Wooden focused his
coaching on telling players what to do and how
to do it. He accomplished this through short
demonstrations modeling the correct behavior.
The Behavioral Approach
Leaders in sport—reactive and
spontaneous behaviors
CBAS (Coaching Behavior Assessment System)
Facilitating positive coaching behaviors
(frequent use of reinforcement and mistakecontingent encouragement) assures greater
enjoyment, higher self-esteem, and lower
dropout rates in young athletes.
Coaching Behavior Assessment
System (CBAS) Categories
Reactive behaviors
Reinforcement
Mistake-contingent encouragement
Mistake-contingent technical instruction
Punishment
Punitive technical instruction
Ignoring mistakes
Keeping control
Coaching Behavior Assessment
System (CBAS) Categories
Spontaneous behaviors
General technical instruction
General encouragement
Organization
General communication
(See table 9.1 on p. 205 of text.)
Behavioral Guidelines for Coaches
On the basis of 25 years of research, Smoll and
Smith (2001) provide some guidelines for coaching
young athletes:
Do provide reinforcement immediately after
positive behaviors and reinforce effort as much
as results.
Do give encouragement and corrective instruction immediately after mistakes. Emphasize
what the athlete did well, not what the person
did poorly.
(continued)
Behavioral Guidelines for Coaches
Don’t punish after athletes make a mistake. Fear
of failure is reduced if you work to reduce fear
of punishment.
Don’t give corrective feedback in a hostile,
demeaning, or harsh manner, as this is likely to
increase frustration and build resentment.
Do maintain order by establishing clear
expectations. Use positive reinforcement to
strengthen the correct behaviors rather than
punishment of incorrect behaviors.
(continued)
Behavioral Guidelines for Coaches
Don’t get into the position of having to
constantly nag or threaten athletes to prevent
chaos.
Do use encouragement selectively so that it is
meaningful. Encourage effort but don’t demand
results.
Do provide technical instruction in a clear,
concise manner and demonstrate how to
perform the skill whenever possible.
The Interactional Approach
KEY—
Both person and situation factors must be jointly
considered to understand effective leadership.
IMPLICATIONS—
1. No one set of characteristics ensures successful leaders (but characteristics are important).
2. Effective leader styles or behaviors fit the
specific situation.
3. Leadership styles can be changed.
The Interactional Approach
Relationship- and task-oriented leaders
compared
A relationship-oriented leader focuses on
developing and maintaining good interpersonal
relationships and keep open lines of
communication; a task-oriented leader focuses
on setting goals and getting the job done.
The effectiveness of an individual’s leadership
style stems from its “matching” the situation.
(continued)
The Interactional Approach
Task-oriented leaders are effective in very
favorable or unfavorable situations.
Relationship-oriented leaders are effective in
moderately favorable situations.
The Multidimensional Model
of Sport Leadership
KEYS —
Leader effectiveness in sport is contingent on
situational characteristics of both the leader and
the group members.
Optimal performance and satisfaction are
achieved when a leader’s required, preferred,
and actual behaviors are consistent.
The Multidimensional Model
of Sport Leadership
Leadership Scale for
Sport (LSS) Dimensions
Training (instructional behaviors)
Democratic behavior (decision-making style)
Autocratic behavior (decision-making style)
Social support (motivational tendencies)
Positive feedback (motivational tendencies)
Antecedents of Leadership
Age and maturing
Gender
Nationality
Type of sport
Antecedents of Leadership
Psychological characteristics
Athletes with internal locus of control show
strong preference for training and instruction,
while athletes with external locus of control
prefer more autocratic behaviors.
Females high in trait anxiety prefer more
positive and social support behaviors than their
counterparts with low trait anxiety.
Consequences of Leadership
Satisfaction
Cohesion
Performance
Intrinsic Motivation
Practical Implications
Four components of
effective leadership
Leader Qualities
Integrity, flexibility, loyalty, confidence, accountability,
candor, preparedness, resourcefulness, self-discipline,
and patience
Leadership Style
Democratic or autocratic
Leader decision-making style
What is the best style for the situation?
Situational Factors
Team or individual
Interactive or coactive
Team size
Available time
Traditional leadership style
Follower Qualities
Experience
Gender
Ability
Age, experience, maturity
Nationality
Personality
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