What are the two types of imagery? Which type do you use when you visualize? Explain how you would teach athletes to use imagery to be successful in their sport. (CH 13)
CHAPTER 13
Imagery
Session Outline
What Is Imagery?
Does Imagery Work?
Where, When, Why, and What Type of Imagery Is
Used
Factors in the Effectiveness of Imagery
How Imagery Works: Five Theories
(continued)
Session Outline
Uses of Imagery
Keys to Effective Imagery
Developing an Imagery Training Program
When to Use Imagery
What Is Imagery?
Equivalent terms include visualization, mental
rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice,
and mental practice.
Imagery involves creating or recreating an
experience in your mind and can, and should,
involve as many senses as possible.
(continued)
What Is Imagery?
Imagery is a form of simulation that involves
recalling from memory pieces of information
stored from experience and shaping these
pieces into meaningful images.
Imagery involves all the senses: visual,
kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, olfactory.
Imagery involves moods and emotions.
Does Imagery Work?
Anecdotal reports:
Jack Nicklaus, Chris Evert, Olympic athletes
and coaches
Multiple-baseline case studies:
Visuomotor behavior rehearsal (VMBR)
investigations with skiers and karate
performers
Shows that imagery combined with other
psychological strategies enhances
performance
Does Imagery Work?
Qualitative studies:
These studies provide support for a positive
relationship between imagery and
performance.
Experimental evidence:
Evidence from scientific experiments in
support of imagery also is impressive and
clearly demonstrates the value of imagery in
learning and performing motor skills
However, imagery effectiveness depends on a
number of factors.
Imagery in Sport: Where, When,
Why, and What
Where do athletes image?
Athletes employ imagery more in
competition than in training.
When do athletes image?
Athletes use imagery before, during, and
after practice; outside of practice (home,
school, work); before, during, or after
competition; and for injury rehabilitation.
Imagery in Sport: Where, When,
Why, and What
Why do athletes image?
For motivational and cognitive functions
What do athletes image?
Aspects: surroundings in which the athlete
competes; positive or negative character of
images; the senses involved in imagery; and
the perspective (internal vs. external) the
athlete takes in creating imagery
Imagery in Sport: Where, When,
Why, and What
Imagery perspective
Internal perspective: visualizing the execution
of a skill from your own vantage point (as if
you had a camera on your head)
External perspective: visualizing yourself from
the perspective of an outside observer (as if
you were watching yourself in the movies or
on videotape)
No one imagery perspective is best to use at
all times.
Uses of Imagery
KEY—
Whether a person uses an internal or external
image appears to be less important than
choosing a comfortable style that produces
clear, controllable images.
Factors in the Effectiveness of Imagery
Nature of the Task
Imagery affects performance the most on cognitive
tasks.
Skill Level of the Performer
Imagery helps performance for both novice and
experienced performers; effects are somewhat
stronger for experienced performers.
(continued)
Factors in the Effectiveness of Imagery
Imaging Ability
Imagery is more effective when individuals are higher
in their ability to image (have better vividness and
control).
Combination With Practice
Imagery should be used in addition to physical
practice (not instead of).
How Imagery Works: Five Theories
1. Psychoneuromuscular theory
2. Symbolic learning theory
3. Psychological skills hypothesis
4. Bioinformational theory
5. Triple code model
How Imagery Works
Theory 1: Psychoneuromuscular theory
Imagery programs muscles for action.
Imagery facilitates the learning of motor skills
because imagined events innervate the
muscles like physical practice of the
movement; they strengthen neural pathways.
How Imagery Works
Theory 2: Symbolic learning theory
Imagery helps us understand movement
patterns.
Imagery functions as a coding system (as
mental blueprints) to help people understand
and acquire movement patterns.
How Imagery Works
Theory 3: Psychological skills hypothesis
Imagery develops mental skills.
Imagery develops and refines mental skills
(e.g., improves concentration, reduce anxiety
and enhance confidence – which are all
important psychological skills for maximizing
performance).
How Imagery Works
Theory 4: Bioinformational theory
Images are made of stimulus and response
propositions.
It is critical to imagine not only stimulus
propositions (statements that describe the
scenario to be imagined) but also response
propositions (imaginer’s response to the
scenario).
How Imagery Works
Theory 5: Triple code model
Imagery comprises of three parts the image,
the somatic response, and the image meaning.
Primary importance is placed on the
psychophysiology of imagery and
understanding the imagery parts: the image,
the somatic response, and the meaning of the
image.
Uses of Imagery
Improve concentration
Build confidence
Control emotional responses
Acquire and practice sport skills
Acquire and practice strategy
Cope with pain and adversity
Solve problems
Keys to Effective Imagery
Vividness
Good imagers use all the senses to make their images
as vivid and detailed as possible.
Exercise:
Imagine being at home.
Imagine a positive performance of a skill.
Imagine a best performance.
Keys to Effective Imagery
Controllability
Learn to manipulate your images so they do what you
want them to.
Exercise:
Imagine controlling a performance.
Imagine controlling your emotions.
Imagine controlling a performance against a tough
opponent.
Developing an
Imagery Training Program
It is important to tailor imagery programs to an
athlete’s individual needs, abilities, and
interests.
The first step in developing an imagery
program is evaluating the athlete’s imagery
skills.
Imagery must be individualized and practiced.
Hence, it should be built into an athlete’s daily
routine.
Developing an
Imagery Training Program
Imagery guidelines:
Proper setting
Relaxed concentration
Realistic expectations; sufficient motivation
Vivid and controllable images
Positive focus
(continued)
Developing an
Imagery Training Program
Imagery guidelines:
Videotapes/Audiotapes
Imagining execution and outcomes
Imagining in real time
When to Use Imagery
Before and after practice
Before and after competition
During breaks in action (in practice and
competition)
During personal time
When recovering from injury (positive images of
healing or full recovery have been shown to
enhance recovery)
CHAPTER 14
Self-Confidence
Session Outline
Defining Self-Confidence
Benefits of Self-Confidence
Levels of Confidence
How Expectations Influence Performance
Self-Efficacy Theory
(continued)
Session Outline
Efficacy Sources
Modeling and Effective Demonstrations
Assessing Self-Confidence
Building Self-Confidence
Defining Self-Confidence
Self-Confidence
The belief that you can successfully perform a desired
behavior
Confident athletes believe in themselves. Most
importantly, they believe in their ability to acquire the
necessary skills and competencies, both physical and
mental, to reach their potential. Less confident players
doubt whether they are good enough or have what it
takes to be successful.
Defining Self-Confidence
Dispositional Self-Confidence
The degree of certainty individuals “usually” possess
about their ability to succeed
State Self-Confidence
The belief of certainty that individuals possess at a
“particular moment” about their ability to succeed
Defining Self-Confidence
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Expecting something to happen actually helps cause it
to happen.
Negative Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A psychological barrier whereby the expectation of
failure leads to actual failure
Aspects of Self-Confidence in Sport
Vealey and Knight (2001)
Confidence about one’s ability to
execute physical skills,
utilize psychological skills,
employ perceptual skills (e.g., make good
decisions),
be fit and highly trained, and
improve one’s skill—learn.
Benefits of Self-Confidence
Arouses positive emotions
Facilitates concentration
Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging
goals
Increases effort
Affects game strategies (play to win versus
play to lose)
Affects psychological momentum
Levels of Confidence
Optimal Confidence
Being so convinced that you will achieve your goals
that you strive hard to do so
Lack of Confidence
Self-doubts undermine performance: they create
anxiety, break concentration, and cause
indecisiveness.
Levels of Confidence
Overconfidence (False Confidence)
Confidence out of proportion to actual ability causes
you to prepare less than you need to in order to
perform.
Optimal Confidence, Underconfidence,
and Overconfidence
The inverted U illustrating the confidenceperformance relationship
How Expectations
Influence Performance
KEY—
One’s expectations play a critical role in the
behavior change process. Positive expectations
of success produce positive effects in many
fields, including sport.
How Expectations
Influence Performance
Self-Expectations and Performance
The expectation of beating a tough opponent or
successfully performing a difficult skill can produce
exceptional performance as psychological barriers are
overcome.
How Expectations
Influence Performance
Coach Expectations and Performance
A teacher’s or coach’s expectations can alter a
student’s or athlete’s feelings and performance.
Because your expectations of others affect not only
your own behavior but also the feelings and behavior
of others.
Step 1
Coaching Expectations
and Athlete’s Performance
Coaches form expectations based on
personal cues (e.g., gender, race) and
performance information (e.g., skill tests,
practice behaviors).
Problems occur when inaccurate expectations
(too high or too low) are formed.
Step 2
Coaching Expectations
and Athlete’s Performance
Coaches’ expectations influence their
behavior with regard to the
frequency and quality of coach-athlete
interaction,
quantity and quality of instruction, and
type and frequency of feedback.
Step 3
Coaching Expectations
and Athlete’s Performance
Coaches’ behaviors affect athlete
performance by causing
low-expectancy performers to perform more
poorly because of less reinforcement, less
playing time, less confidence, and attributions
to low ability.
Step 4
Coaching Expectations
and Athlete’s Performance
Athlete’s performance confirms the
expectancy.
Coaching Expectations and Behavior
Recommendations
1. Coaches should determine what sources of
information they use to form preseason or
early-season expectations for each athlete.
2. Coaches should realize that their initial
assessments of an athlete’s competence may
be inaccurate and thus need to be revised
continuously as the season progresses.
(continued)
Coaching Expectations and Behavior
Recommendations
3. During practices, coaches need to keep a
running count of the amount of time each
athlete spends in non-skill-related activities
(e.g., waiting in line).
4. Coaches should design instructional activities
or drills that provide all athletes with an
opportunity to improve their skills.
(continued)
Coaching Expectations and Behavior
Recommendations
5. Coaches should generally respond to skill
errors with corrective instructions about how
to perform the skill correctly.
6. Coaches should emphasize skill improvement
as a means of evaluating and reinforcing
individual athletes rather than using absolute
performance or levels of skill achievement.
(continued)
Coaching Expectations and Behavior
Recommendations
7. Coaches should interact frequently with all
athletes on their team to solicit information
about athletes’ perceptions, opinions, and
attitudes regarding team rules and
organization.
8. Coaches should try to create a mastery
oriented environment in team practices,
focused on improvement and team play.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-Efficacy
The perception of one’s ability to perform a task
successfully is really a situation-specific form of selfconfidence.
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy provides a model to study the
effects of self-confidence on sport
performance, persistence, and behavior.
Self-efficacy is important when one has the
requisite skills and sufficient motivation.
Self-efficacy affects an athlete’s choice of
activities, level of effort, and persistence.
(continued)
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
Although self-efficacy is task specific, it
generalizes to other similar skills and
situations.
People with high self-efficacy set more
challenging goals.
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Efficacy Sources
Performance accomplishments
Particularly clear success or failure provide the
most dependable foundation for self-efficacy
judgments because they are based on one’s
mastery experiences.
Successful experiences raise the level of selfefficacy, while failure results in lowered
efficacy.
Vicarious experiences (modeling)
Seeing others or modeling influences efficacy.
Efficacy Sources
Verbal persuasion
Verbal persuasion from oneself and others is a
source of efficacy.
Imaginal experiences
Imagery is used as a source of efficacy. The
key to using imagery as a source of confidence
is to see oneself demonstrating mastery.
Efficacy Sources
Physiological States
Physiological states influence self-efficacy
when they are associated with aversive
physiological arousal, poor performance, and
perceived failure.
Emotional States
Emotions or moods are a source of efficacy
information.
The Reciprocal Relationship Between
Efficacy and Behavior Change
Self-efficacy is a determinant
of performance and exercise behavior.
AND
Performance and exercise behavior
determine one’s self-efficacy.
The Four-Stage Modeling Process
1. Attention
Careful attention must be given to the
model or person observed.
2. Retention
For modeling to occur, the observers must
commit the observed acts to memory.
(continued)
The Four-Stage Modeling Process
3. Motor reproduction
For modeling of physical skills to successfully occur, the performers must be able to
coordinate their muscle activity with their
thoughts.
4. Motivation
For modeling to occur, the observers must
be motivated to attend to, retain, and practice modeled acts. This stage affects all
other stages.
Tips for Giving
Effective Demonstrations
Inform learners of the importance of the skill to
the game or activity.
Point out a high-status model (e.g., professional athlete) who effectively uses the skill to
be modeled.
Make sure participants do not face any
distractions and that they can all see and hear.
Make eye contact with the learner as you
convey instructions about the modeled act.
(continued)
Tips for Giving
Effective Demonstrations
Demonstrate complex skills from several
angles (e.g., tennis serve for both left- and
right-handed individuals).
Focus learner attention on only three or four
key points of the skill.
Repeat demonstrations of complex skills.
Make sure instructions always slightly precede
the skill or segment of the skill being
demonstrated.
(continued)
Tips for Giving
Effective Demonstrations
Have the learners mentally rehearse what was
shown immediately after observing the
demonstration.
Practice the skill immediately after it has been
demonstrated and mentally rehearsed.
Have observers name the subunits or parts of
the skill.
(continued)
Tips for Giving
Effective Demonstrations
Always follow slow-motion demonstrations by
giving at least one demonstration performed at
full speed.
Reinforce correct performance of the modeled
act.
Assessing Self-Confidence
The Sport Confidence Inventory
Coaching Efficacy and Its Components
The extent to which coaches believe they have
the capacity to affect the learning and
performance of athletes
Coaching efficacy components
Game strategy
Motivation
Technique
Character building
Building Self-Confidence
Ensure performance accomplishments.
Successful behavior increases confidence and
leads to further successful behavior.
Include good physical, technical, and tactical
instructions.
Use game-pressure simulations.
Acting confidently.
Instructors-coaches should display confidence.
Teach athletes to display confidence.
Building Self-Confidence
Thinking confidently.
Focus on instruction and motivating thoughts.
Avoid judgmental thoughts.
Using imagery.
Imagine yourself as confident and successful.
You can see yourself doing things that you
either have never been able to do or have had
difficulty doing.
Building Self-Confidence
Goal mapping
Have personalized goal achievement plans.
Training for physical conditioning
Training and physical states are keys to
confidence.
Building Self-Confidence
Prepare!
Develop performance plans and precompetitive routines; plans give you confidence
because you know what to do. Being prepared
gives you confidence that you have done
everything possible to ensure success.
Dos and Don’ts for
Building Self-Confidence
DO maintain a high positive precompetitive
environment.
DO have high expectations of all your
participants.
DO set realistic but challenging short- and longterm goals.
DO provide lots of contingent, positive feedback
and praise.
(continued)
Dos and Don’ts for
Building Self-Confidence
DO structure the environment to provide for
early success.
DO try to find individuals doing something right
(as opposed to just looking for their mistakes).
(continued)
Dos and Don’ts for
Building Self-Confidence
DON’T use sarcasm and put-downs to motivate
people.
DON’T allow teammates or group members to
belittle other team or group members.
DON’T criticize individuals for inconsequential
mistakes or errors.
(continued)
Dos and Don’ts for
Building Self-Confidence
DON’T embarrass or criticize individuals at the
first sign of a mistake.
DON’T criticize the person; criticize the
behavior.
CHAPTER 15
Goal Setting
Session Outline
Defining Goals and Types of Goals
Why Goal Setting Works
Principles of Goal Setting
Group Goals
Designing a Goal-Setting System
Common Problems in Goal Setting
Defining Goals and Types of Goals
Subjective Goals
General statements of intent (e.g., “I want to do well”;
“I want to have fun”) but not in measurable, objective
terms.
Objective Goals (Scientific Definition)
Focus on attaining a specific standard of proficiency
on a task, usually within a specified time
Defining Goals and Types of Goals
Outcome Goal
Typically focus on a competitive result of an event,
such as winning a race, earning a medal, or scoring
more points than an opponent
Performance Goal
Focus on achieving standards or performance
objectives independently of other competitors,
usually on the basis of comparisons with one’s own
previous performances
Defining Goals and Types of Goals
Process Goal
Focus on the actions an individual must engage in
during performance to execute or perform well
Outcome, Performance,
and Process Goals in Behavior Change
Outcome, performance, and process goals all
play a role in behavior change. The key is
knowing where to focus each goal.
Don’t focus all your attention on outcome
goals.
Use a combination of all three types of goals.
Outcome Goals in Behavior Change
Outcome goals can facilitate short-term
motivation, but often lead to anxiety before and
during competition.
Performance Goals in Behavior Change
Performance and process goals are more
precise than outcome goals and less
dependent on the behavior of others.
Performance and process goals are
particularly useful before or during
competition (on rare occasions).
Too much focus on a specific performance
goal (e.g., running a personal best) can create
anxiety.
Process Goals in Behavior Change
Process goals have all the advantages of
performance goals.
Is Goal Setting Effective?
Research has shown that goal setting works and works
extremely well for enhancing performance.
In addition, researchers have found that the following
factors most consistently enhance the effectiveness of
goal setting in sport and exercise environments: having
moderately difficult goals, having both short- and longterm goals, the presence of feedback on progress toward
goal attainment, specificity of goals, public
acknowledgement of goals, commitment to goal
attainment, participant’s input in the goal setting process,
and use of a combination of different goals.
Goal-Setting Research
Goal-setting effectiveness has been
demonstrated in studies with over 40,000
participants, using over 90 different tasks and
across 10 different countries.
Meta-analyses (statistical reviews of the
literature) show that goal setting works.
Goal-Setting Research
Almost all athletes use some type of goal
setting to enhance performance.
Top three goals for athletes:
Improving Performance
Winning
Enjoyment
Athletes prefer moderately difficult, difficult, and
very difficult goals.
Goal-Setting Research
Major goal barriers for college athletes:
Lack of time
Stress
Fatigue
Academic pressure
Social relationships
Goal-Setting Research
Major goal barriers for Olympians:
Lack of confidence
Lack of goal feedback
Too many goals or conflicting goals
Lack of time
Work commitments
Family and personal relationships
Goal-Setting Research
Females set goals more often and find them
more effective than men do.
Athletes do not systematically write down goals.
The more experience athletes have with goal
setting, the better they are at developing
effective goal-setting strategies.
Goal-Setting Research
Athletes set goals to provide direction and help
them stay focused.
Athletes using multiple goal strategies exhibit
the best performance.
Individual differences must be considered.
Why Goal-Setting Works
The direct mechanistic explanation is that goals
direct attention to the important elements of the
skill,
mobilize performer efforts,
prolong performer persistence, and
foster the development of new learning
strategies.
Why Goal-Setting Works
Goals influence performance indirectly by
affecting psychological factors, such as anxiety,
confidence, and satisfaction.
Why Goal-Setting Works
KEY—
Athletes who set performance (rather than
outcome) goals experience less anxiety and
more confidence and satisfaction.
Principles of Goal Setting
1. Set specific goals.
2. Set moderately difficult but realistic goals.
3. Set long- and short-term goals.
4. Set performance and process goals, as well as
outcome goals.
5. Set practice and competition goals.
6. Record goals.
(continued)
Principles of Goal Setting
7. Develop goal achievement strategies.
8. Consider participants’ personalities and
motivations.
9. Foster an individual’s goal commitment.
10. Provide goal support.
11. Provide evaluation of and feedback about
goals.
Principles of Goal Setting
1. Set specific goals. Specific goals, as compared
with general “do your best” goals, are most
effective for producing behavioral change.
General goal: Lower cholesterol
Specific goal: Lower cholesterol from 290 to
200 by . . . [how]
2. Set moderately difficult but realistic goals.
Goals should be “moderately” difficult.
Hard enough to be challenging, but realistic
enough to achieve.
Principles of Goal Setting
3. Set long- and short-term goals. Use goal
staircases that link long- and short-term goals.
4. Set performance and process goals, as well as
outcome goals. For every outcome goal, set
several performance and process goals that will
lead to the desired outcome.
Goal-Setting Staircase
Climbing the Mountain of Change
Principles of Goal Setting
5. Set practice and competition goals.
6. Record goals. “Ink it, don’t think it.”
7. Develop goal achievement strategies. Develop
specific goal achievement strategies that
include how much and how often things will be
done in an effort to achieve a goal. Be flexible,
however.
Principles of Goal Setting
8. Consider participants’ personalities and
motivations. Consider factors such as
achievement motivation (high vs. low
achievers), stages of achievement motivation,
social comparison, and task or ego orientation
when setting goals. Motivational climate also
influences goal-setting effectiveness.
9. Foster an individual’s goal commitment.
Promote goal commitment by encouraging
progress and providing consistent feedback.
Solicit the athlete’s or exerciser’s input.
Principles of Goal Setting
10. Provide goal support. Enlist support from
significant others to make goal setting effective.
11. Provide evaluation of and feedback about
goals. Goal evaluation and feedback are
essential parts of facilitating behavioral change
via goal setting.
Forms of Goal Evaluation
Goal
Evaluation strategy
Lose 20 pounds
in 6 months
Client informs fitness
instructor of his or her
weight weekly
Improve concen- Coach gives player weekly
tration levels
report card, rating pracduring practice
tice concentration on a 0
(low) to 10 (high) scale
(See table 15.1 on page 341 of text.)
Group Goals
Group Goal
The future state of affairs desired by enough members
of a group to work toward its achievement. More
specifically, group goals refer to attainment of specific
standards of “group” (not individual) proficiency,
usually within a specified time
Group Goal-Setting Principles
1. Establish long-term goals first.
2. Establish clear paths of short-term goals en
route to the long-term goals.
3. Involve all members of the team in establishing
team goals.
4. Monitor progress toward team goals.
5. Reward progress made toward team goals.
6. Foster collective team confidence or efficacy
concerning team goals.
Designing a Goal-Setting System
1. Instructor-leader preparation and planning
Assess abilities and needs.
Set goals in diverse areas.
Identify influences on goal-setting systems
(athlete’s commitment, potential, and
opportunity for practice).
Plan goal achievement strategies.
Designing a Goal-Setting System
2. Education and acquisition
Schedule meetings
Focus on one goal (initially).
Designing a Goal-Setting System
3. Implementation and follow-up
Identify appropriate goal evaluation
strategies.
Provide support and encouragement.
Plan for goal reevaluation.
Outcome Goals in Behavior Change
Goals can be set in many areas, including
individual, team, and psychological skills.
(See table 15.2 on page 344 of text for sample goals.)
Common Problems in Goal Setting
Convincing students, athletes, and exercisers to
set goals
Failing to set specific goals
Setting too many goals too soon
Failing to adjust goals
Failure to recognize individual differences
Not providing goal follow-up and evaluation
Adjusting Goals Downward
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