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INTO LIFE
Sixteenth Edition
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Chapter 36
Major Ecosystems
of the Biosphere
Lecture Outline
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
36.1 Climate and the Biosphere
Climate.
• Refers to the prevailing weather conditions in a
particular region.
• Dictated by temperature and rainfall.
• Influenced by the following factors:
• Variations in solar radiation distribution due to the tilt
of the Earth as it orbits the sun.
• Other effects—topography, proximity to water bodies.
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Effect of Solar Radiation
1
The sun’s rays are more direct at the equator
and more spread out nearing the poles.
• Tropical regions nearest the equator are warmer
than temperate regions farther away.
The Earth is on a slight tilt (23 degrees
Celsius).
• As the Earth orbits, different areas are tilted
toward or away from the sun, determining
seasons.
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Distribution of
Solar Energy
1
Figure 36.1a
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Distribution of Solar Energy
Figure 36.1b
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Effect of Solar Radiation
2
The flow of warm and cold air form three large
circulation patterns in each hemisphere.
The direction in which the air rises and cools
determines the direction of the wind.
At the equator.
• The sun heats the air.
• Water evaporates: as warm, moist air rises, the moisture
is lost as rain.
• The greatest amounts of rainfall occur near the equator.
• The rising air flows toward the poles.
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Effect of Solar Radiation
3
At about 30 degrees Celsius north and south
latitude, air typically sinks toward Earth’s surface
and reheats.
• As the dry air descends, it creates high pressure areas
with low rainfall.
• The result is the great deserts of Africa, Australia, and the
Americas that are found at this latitude.
At about 60 degrees Celsius north and south
latitude, the warm air rises and cools, producing a
low pressure area.
• Low pressure areas result in zones of high rainfall.
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Effect of Solar Radiation
4
Between 30 degrees Celsius and 60 degrees
Celsius latitude, a strong wind pattern known as the
westerlies occurs in both hemispheres.
• These winds move from west to east.
• As a result, the west coasts of the continents at these
latitudes are wet.
At latitudes higher than 60 degrees Celsius, weaker
winds called the polar easterlies blow from east to
west in both hemispheres.
• Dry air descends at the poles and retains moisture.
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Effect of Solar Radiation
5
The direction of wind patterns, such as the
westerlies and easterlies, is affected by the
spinning of the Earth about its axis.
• Northern hemisphere: Large scale winds
generally move clockwise.
• Northeast trade winds blow toward southwest.
• Southern hemisphere: Winds move
counterclockwise.
• Southeast trade winds blow toward northwest.
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Global Wind Circulation
Figure 36.2
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Other Effects
1
Topography – physical features of land.
• Mountains.
• As air blows up the mountain, it rises and cools,
causing condensation to occur.
• The windward side receives more rain than the
leeward side.
• This creates a rain shadow on the leeward side,
which receives less rain.
• As air descends the other side of the mountain, it picks up
moisture and produces a dry, sunny environment.
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Formation of a Rain Shadow
Figure 36.3
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Other Effects
2
Coasts.
• During the day, land warms more quickly than
ocean, air rises, and cool sea breeze blows off
ocean.
• At night, land cools faster and breeze blows
from the land to the sea.
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Other Effects
3
Monsoon climate.
• Land heats more rapidly than the waters of the Indian
Ocean during the spring.
• This difference causes a gigantic circulation of air: warm
air rises over the land, and cooler air comes in off the
ocean to replace it.
• As warm air rises, it loses its moisture, creating a
monsoon climate (about six months long): wet ocean
winds blow onshore.
• During the monsoon season, rainfall is especially heavy
on the windward side of hills.
• The pattern reverses by November.
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Other Effects
4
“Lake Effect”.
• In the winter, arctic winds blowing over the Great
Lakes become warm and moisture-laden.
• When these winds rise and lose their moisture,
snow begins to fall.
• Buffalo, New York gets heavy snowfall due to the
lake effect.
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36.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems
1
Biome – major type of terrestrial ecosystem.
• Characterized by particular climatic conditions
and community of plants and animals.
• Major biomes characterized by mean annual
temperature and mean annual precipitation.
• Biomes gradually change from one type to another at
borders.
• Linked to each other to form biosphere.
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Patterns of Biome Distribution
Figure 36.4a
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Patterns of Biome Distribution
Figure 36.4b
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36.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems
2
Distribution of the biomes and their corresponding
communities of organisms is determined by three
things:
• Climate (affected by solar radiation).
• Water.
• Defining topographical features.
Biomes change with altitude as they do with latitude
due to changes in temperature.
• Can see progression of tropical rain forest, temperate forest,
coniferous forest, and tundra when ascending latitude in the
Northern Hemisphere or ascending a mountain.
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Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
Figure 36.5
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Tundra
1
Tundra biome.
• Encircles the arctic region south of polar seas in the
Northern Hemisphere.
• Very cold and dark most of the year—short growing
season, precipitation is minimal (< 20 centimeters/year).
• Permafrost prevents water drainage; bogs and pools
form in the summer.
• Vegetation suitable for short growing season.
• Lichens, short grasses, mosses, dwarf shrubs.
• Animals – few live all year round.
• Ptarmigans, musk ox, migratory birds, caribou, reindeer, and
wolves.
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education
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Tundra
2
Figure 36.6
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(b): Source: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service; (c): ©Roberta Olenick/All Canada Photos/Getty Images
Coniferous Forests
1
Coniferous forests are found in three
locations.
• Taiga - Northern part of North America and
Eurasia.
• Vegetation: Cone-bearing trees adapted to the cold
climate.
• Pine, firs, spruce.
• Needles can withstand weight of snow, thick bark.
• Understory is limited to mosses, lichens.
• Animals – usually near lakes and streams.
• Bears, deer, moose, beavers, muskrats, wolves, birds.
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Coniferous Forests
2
Montane coniferous forest – a second
location of coniferous forest biome.
• Near mountaintops just above deciduous forest.
• Wolverine and mountain lion located in
montane coniferous forest.
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Coniferous Forests
3
Temperate rain forest.
• These are found on the western coast of the
United States and Canada.
• Plentiful rainfall and rich soil have produced
some of the tallest conifer trees known.
• Coastal redwoods.
• Small sections are considered old-growth forest
with an average age of more than 150 years old.
• Moses and ferns grow on tree trunks.
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Coniferous Forests
4
Figure 36.7
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(b): ©Creatas/Jupiterimages; (c): ©Jupiterimages/liquidlibrary/360/Getty Images
Temperate Deciduous Forests
1
Temperate deciduous forests.
• South of the taiga in eastern North America,
much of Europe, and eastern Asia.
• Moderate climate, with relatively high
precipitation (75 to 150 centimeters per year).
• Well-defined seasons, long growing season
(140 to 300 days).
• Trees are deciduous because they lose their
leaves in fall and regrow them in spring.
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Temperate Deciduous Forests
2
Vegetation.
• Common trees are oak, beech, maple, and other
broad-leaf deciduous trees.
• The tallest trees form a canopy, receive the most
sunlight, and create a shade below.
• The understory trees are a layer of trees just
below the tallest group.
• Shrubs and herbaceous plants grow below the
understory layer.
• Lichens and ferns are found on the forest floor.
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Temperate Deciduous Forests
3
Stratification of plant life provides a variety of habitats
for insects and birds.
Ground life is plentiful.
• Squirrels, rabbits, chipmunks, shrews, and other small
herbivores.
• Ground birds such as turkeys, pheasants, and grouse.
• Beaver, muskrats, bobcats, red foxes, deer, and black bears.
A greater diversity of amphibians and reptiles than in
the taiga.
• Fruits, nuts, and berries provide winter food.
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Temperate Deciduous Forests
4
Figure 36.8
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(b): ©Bereczki Barna/Alamy; (c): ©Tom McHugh/Science Source
Tropical Forests
1
Tropical Forests – the tropical rain forest is the
most common type.
• South America, Africa, Indo-Malayan region, regions near
the equator.
• Uniformly warm temperatures (20 degrees Celsius to 25
degrees Celsius).
• Abundant rainfall, minimum of 190 centimeters per year.
• Biome with the greatest species diversity.
• 10-square kilometer area may contain 750 species of trees and
1,500 species of flowering plants.
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Tropical Forests
2
Complex structure, many levels of life.
• Broadleaf evergreen trees grow up to 15 to 50 meters or more.
• Some trunks are buttressed; lianas (woody vines) encircle
trees.
Animals.
• Some live on ground – pacas, agouties, peccaries, and
armadillos.
• Many live in trees.
• Insect life is very abundant.
• Termites play a role in decomposition of woody plants; ants found
everywhere.
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Tropical Forests
3
Birds – beautiful colors.
• Hummingbirds, parakeets, parrots, toucans.
Amphibians and reptiles – well represented.
• Many types of frogs, snakes, and lizards.
Primates.
• Lemurs and monkeys, which feed on fruits.
Carnivores – big cats.
• Jaguars in South America.
• Leopards in Africa and Asia.
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Tropical Forests
4
Many animals and some plants spend their entire
life on the canopy.
• Epiphytes – plants that grow on other plants.
• Have own roots and absorb materials from canopy.
Soil is not as rich as that of temperate deciduous
forest.
• Nutrients are rapidly recycled.
• Removing trees for agriculture causes erosion.
Tropical deciduous forests have wet and dry
seasons.
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Tropical Forests
5
Figure 36.9
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(b):©Ricochet Creative Productions LLC; (c): ©Sandy Windelspecht/Ricochet Creative Productions LLC
Shrublands
1
Shrublands.
• Tend to occur along coasts with dry summers and
receive most of their rainfall in winter.
• Shrubs with waxy leaves, adapted to arid conditions.
• Can quickly regrow after fires.
• Excess heat required for some seeds to germinate.
• Chaparral is type of Mediterranean shrubland found in
California, South Africa, Australia.
• Animals include coyotes, jackrabbits, lizards, deer,
roadrunners, gophers, and other rodents.
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Shrublands
2
Figure 36.10
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(b): ©Steven P. Lynch; (c): Source: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service/ Gary Kramer, photographer
Grasslands
Grasslands.
• Rainfall is greater than 25 centimeters per year but not
enough to support trees.
• Natural grasslands have declined because they are now
used to grow crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans.
• Grasses are well adapted to a changing environment.
• Tolerate some grazing, flooding, drought, and fire.
• Growth of grasses is seasonal.
• Areas with higher rainfall can support tall grasses.
• In drier areas, shorter grasses dominate.
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Temperate Grasslands
Temperate grasslands.
• Russian steppes.
• American pampas.
• North American prairies.
• Bison and pronghorn antelope once were abundant in
prairies.
• Now, small animals, such as mice, prairie dogs, and
rabbits typically live below ground.
• Aboveground, hawks, snakes, badgers, coyotes, and
foxes feed on the smaller animals.
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The Prairie
Figure 36.11
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(b): ©Jim Steinberg/Science Source; (c): ©Fuse/Getty Images
Savannas
Savanna – grassland with some trees.
• Relatively cool dry season is followed by a hot, rainy
season.
• Acacia – a typical savanna tree, sheds its leaves during
the dry season.
African savanna.
• Great variety and number of large herbivores.
• Elephants and giraffes feed on tree vegetation (browsers).
• Antelopes, zebras, wildebeests, and rhinoceroses feed on
grasses (grazers).
• Carnivores include lions, hyenas, cheetahs, and
leopards.
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The Savanna
Figure 36.12
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(b): ©iStockphoto/Getty Images; (c): ©Danita Delimont/Alamy
Deserts
1
Deserts.
• Usually found at latitudes of about 30 degrees Celsius,
in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
• Annual rainfall less than 25 centimeters due to dry
winds.
• Hot days (lack of clouds) and cold nights.
• Most deserts have a variety of plants.
• Succulent, spiny cacti and nonsucculent woody shrubs
(sagebrush and ocotillo).
• Exception: The Sahara has little or no vegetation.
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Deserts
2
Animals – some adapted to desert environment.
• Many are nocturnal, to avoid heat.
• Reptiles and insects have waterproof outer coverings to
conserve water.
• Insects may pass through all stages of development
while there is rain.
• Reptiles and snakes are typical desert vertebrates.
• Other animals include some running birds, rodents,
coyotes, and hawks.
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Deserts
3
Figure 36.13
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(b): ©Corbis; (c): ©Kevin Schafer/Getty Images
36.3 Aquatic Ecosystems
Two main types.
• Freshwater (inland).
• Lakes.
• Saltwater (usually marine).
• Oceans.
• Brackish water is a mixture of fresh and salt
water.
• Coastal ecosystems.
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Lakes
1
Lakes are bodies of fresh water.
• Classified by nutrient abundance.
• Oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) lakes – small amounts of organic
matter.
• Low productivity.
• Eutrophic (nutrient-rich) lakes – plentiful amounts of organic
matter.
• High productivity due to location near naturally nutrient-rich regions.
• May be enriched by agricultural or urban runoff.
• Eutrophication can be caused by large inputs of
nutrient.
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Lakes
2
Figure 36.14
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(a): ©Roger Evans/Science Source; (b): ©McGraw-Hill Education/Pat Watson, photographer
Lakes
3
Deep lakes in temperate zones are stratified in the
summer and winter.
In the summer, they have three layers of water.
• Epilimnion – the surface layer that is warm (24 to 25
degrees Celsius) due to solar radiation and is less dense.
• Thermocline – the middle layer that decreases 1 degree
Celsius per meter of depth.
• Hypolimnion – the cold, lowest layer (5 to 8 degrees
Celsius).
The differences in temperature prevent “mixing.”
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Lakes
4
Fall overturn.
• Upper epilimnion becomes cooler than hypolimnion.
• Surface water sinks, deep water rises.
• Continues until the temperature is uniform throughout
the lake.
• Wind assists water circulation so mixing occurs.
• In winter, floating ice prevents further water cooling
below, which stays at 4 degrees Celsius.
• Aquatic organisms can live through the winter.
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Lakes
5
Spring overturn.
• As ice melts, cooler water on top sinks below
warmer water.
• Continues until the temperature is uniform
throughout lake.
• Winds aid in circulation and mixing.
• As surface waters absorb solar radiation,
thermal stratification occurs by summer.
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Stratification in a Temperate Lake
Figure 36.15
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Lakes
6
The vertical stratification and seasonal change of
temperatures in a lake basin influence the seasonal
distribution of fish and other aquatic life.
• Examples.
• Cold-water fish move to the deeper water in summer, upper
water in winter.
• Phytoplankton growth at the surface is most abundant after
mixing.
• Phytoplankton use up nutrients in epilimnion during the summer and
release oxygen.
• Decomposition in hypolimnion uses up oxygen and releases
nutrients.
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Life Zones
Lakes and ponds can be divided into several life zones.
• Littoral zone: shallow edge.
• Aquatic plants rooted; microscopic organisms cling to plants and to
rocks; insect larvae.
• Limnetic zone: open water, lit by sunlight.
• Fish, plankton (microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton), water
striders (surface).
• Profundal zone: deep, dark water.
• Zooplankton, fish, insect larvae, pike predators.
• Benthic zone: lake bottom.
• Includes the benthos: crayfish, snails, clams, worms, insect larvae.
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Zones of a Lake
Figure 36.16
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education
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(photos) (pike): ©abadonian/iStock/360/Getty Images; (water strider): ©Matti Suopajarvi/Getty Images
Coastal Ecosystems
Estuaries.
• An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water where
fresh and salt water mix.
• Coastal bays, tidal marshes, fjords, some deltas, and lagoons
• Associated with salt marshes, mudflats, mangroves
• Abundance of nutrients, but rapid changes in salinity.
• Feeding grounds of many birds, fish, shellfish.
• “Nurseries” of the sea.
• Half of all marine fish mature in estuaries.
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Estuary Structure and Function
Figure 36.17
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(photos) (snails): ©Jack Glisson/Alamy; (shrimp): ©Ken Lucas/Ardea London Limited
Types of Estuaries
Figure 36.18
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(a): ©Marc Lester/Getty Images; (b): ©shakzu/iStock/360/Getty Images
Seashores
1
Seashores.
• Rocky or sandy and are constantly bombarded by the
sea.
• Littoral zone – between high and low tidal marks –
divided into 3 zones.
• Upper portion – barnacles are attached tightly to stone.
• Midportion – brown algae known as rockweed may overlie the
barnacles.
• Lower portion – oysters and mussels are attached to the rocks by
filaments.
• Limpets and periwinkles.
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Seashores
2
Below the littoral zone, macroscopic seaweeds
anchor to the rocks.
Animals that live on sandy shores cannot attach to
shifting and unstable surfaces.
• They instead bury themselves underground.
• Some remain underground, others surface at night to
feed.
• Ghost crabs and sandhoppers feed at night at low tide.
• Sandworms and sand (ghost) shrimp remain within the burrows
and feed on detritus.
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Seashores
3
Figure 36.19
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(a): Source: NOAA Central Library; (b): ©Jeff Greenburg/Science Source
Oceans
1
Oceans.
• Cover approximately 75% of the Earth.
• Have a major role in redistributing heat in the
biosphere.
• Air takes on the temperature of the water below, and
then warm air moves from the equator to the poles.
• Influence the wind patterns.
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Oceans
2
Currents are caused by wind blowing
steadily across great bodies of water.
• Friction from moving air drags the water along.
• The momentum of wind and moving water is the
current.
• Ocean currents eventually strike land, causing
them to move in circular paths.
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Oceans
3
Northern hemisphere.
• Currents circulate clockwise.
• As currents flow, they move warm water from the
equator to the poles.
• The Gulf Stream brings tropical Caribbean water to
the east coast of North America and higher latitudes
of western Europe.
• Without the Gulf Stream, Great Britain would be as
cold as Greenland.
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Oceans
4
Southern hemisphere.
• Currents circulate counterclockwise.
• The Humboldt Current circulates cold, nutrient-rich
water northward along the west coast of South
America.
• An upwelling occurs when cold offshore winds cause
nutrient-rich waters to rise and take the place of warm,
nutrient-depleted water.
• Waters enriched by upwelling support fisheries of Peru
and Chile.
• When the Humboldt Current is not as cool, stagnation occurs,
and fisheries decline.
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Pelagic Division
1
Organisms in oceans are placed into either
the pelagic division (open waters) or the
benthic division (ocean floor).
• Pelagic division.
• Neritic province – shallow waters over continental
shelf.
• Oceanic province – open water, several depth zones.
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Marine
Environment
Figure 36.20
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education
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Pelagic Division
2
Neritic Province.
• Abundant sunlight and inorganic nutrients allow a large
concentration of organisms.
• Phytoplankton provide food for zooplankton and small fish.
• The small fish are food for larger fish.
• Coral reefs.
• Coral reefs are areas of high biological abundance in shallow,
nutrient-poor, tropical waters.
• They include calcareous red and green algae and colonies of
stony corals.
• Many corals contain symbiotic zooxanthellae.
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Pelagic Division
3
Coral reefs.
• Reefs are densely populated with life.
• The crevices and caves provide shelter for filter feeders
(sponges, sea squirts) and scavengers (crabs and sea
urchins).
• Many small fish live there; some feed directly on corals,
others feed on plankton or detritus.
• Larger fish, such as snapper, feed on smaller fish.
• Top predator fish include the shark, barracuda, and
moray eel.
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Pelagic Division
4
Oceanic Province.
• This province lacks the inorganic nutrients of the neritic
province, but sunlight is available.
• Has a lower concentration of phytoplankton.
• Epipelagic zone: photosynthesizers are eaten by zooplankton,
which are eaten by herring and bluefishes, which are, in turn,
eaten by larger mackerels, tunas, and sharks.
• Whales and other mammals also occur here.
• Mesopelagic zone: carnivores such as squids and lantern fish.
• Bathypelagic zone: complete darkness.
• Carnivores and scavengers.
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Benthic Division
1
The benthic division includes organisms that live
in or on the oceanic soil.
• Sublittoral zone – continental shelf.
• Seaweed, algae, clams, worms, crabs, sea stars.
• Bathyal zone – continental slope.
• Organisms depend on detritus that falls from above.
• Abyssal zone – abyssal plain.
• High pressure and cold water.
• Many invertebrates live at soil-water interface.
• Sea lilies, sea cucumbers, tube worms.
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Benthic Division
2
The flat abyssal plain is interrupted by underwater mountain
chains called oceanic ridges.
Along axes of the ridges, crustal plates spread apart.
• Molten magma from Earth’s core rises.
Seawater percolates through hydrothermal vents.
• Seawater is heated, causing sulfate to react with water and form
hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
• Free-living or mutualistic chemoautotrophic bacteria use electrons
from (H2S) to reduce bicarbonate to organic compounds to support
this ecosystem.
• Includes huge tube worms and clams.
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Ocean
Inhabitants
Figure 36.21
©2020 McGraw-Hill Education
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