Setting Up Your Research
PSYCH/665 Version 3
University of Phoenix Material
Setting Up Your Research
Respond to the following exercises from Chapter One of The Literature Review in 150 to 200 words
each. For the Additional Question, record the research and null hypotheses for your project.
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•
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Exercise 1.1: Discovering the Subject of Your Interest or Issue of Inquiry
Exercise 1.2: Understanding the Personal Viewpoint
Exercise 1.3: Selecting the Focus of Your Study
Exercise 1.5: Developing Your Interest Statement
Additional Question: What are your research and null hypotheses?
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Copyright © 2015, 2014 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
1
Setting Up Your Research
PSYCH/665 Version 3
University of Phoenix Material
Setting Up Your Research
Respond to the following exercises from Chapter One of The Literature Review in 150 to 200 words
each. For the Additional Question, record the research and null hypotheses for your project.
•
•
•
•
Exercise 1.1: Discovering the Subject of Your Interest or Issue of Inquiry
Exercise 1.2: Understanding the Personal Viewpoint
Exercise 1.3: Selecting the Focus of Your Study
Exercise 1.5: Developing Your Interest Statement
Additional Question: What are your research and null hypotheses?
Copyright © 2015, 2014 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
1
literature review is an organized way to research a chosen topic. Let’s take the mystery out
of this process. The simple fact is that doing a literature review is an exercise in applied
critical thinking.
Critically thinking about an issue is a deliberate process. First, the subject of the inquiry
must be recognized. It must be clearly defined and described. Once a researcher has a
clear definition of the subject in question, information can now be collected about the
topic. These data are cataloged and organized in such a fashion that some sense can be
made of them. The data can then be interpreted and analyzed to build the evidence or
reasons to form conclusions. The conclusions formed present the logical case for
answering the question first inquired about. Finally, the argument is examined; the
researcher looks for holes in the reasoning and weighs the conclusions drawn against
competing alternatives. Once this process is completed, the answer can be shared with
others.
Figure I.3 shows the steps for conducting a literature review, as matched to the applied
critical-thinking process.
As is critical thinking, doing a literature review is a developmental process in which each
step leads to the next (Figure I.3). Following is a brief explanation of these six steps.
Figure I.3 The Literature Review Is a Critical-Thinking Process
Step 1. Select a Topic—Recognize and Define the Problem
A successful research topic is usually the offspring of an interest in a practical problem.
The interest statement must be reshaped appropriately, converting its generic wording to
specific academic language. The topic statement must be well defined to allow the
researcher to successfully identify the appropriate literature in the pertinent academic
discipline. Refining the terms used, accurately framing the focus of the interest, and
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selecting the appropriate academic knowledge base are the tasks to be completed to
define a research topic.
Step 1. Select the Topic is also the start of the writing process. Keeping a written journal of
your progress begins here and is essential to comprehending and building knowledge. A
journal helps to clarify ideas and process learning. Writing helps clarify thoughts and
ideas. The journal is an ideal place to establish an internal dialogue where reflection on
your learning can be “wrestled with” and understood. Journals also provide an excellent
place for planning and reviewing work.
Step 2. Develop the Tools for Argument—Create a Process for
Solving the Problem
Since a literature review must present a logically argued case founded on a
comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge, then the rules and tools
for building an informal argument must be employed. A credible case is not simply
reporting about a collection of information or presenting your opinion about the topic. A
credible case produces conclusions resulting from a logical presentation of supporting
evidence. The tools for evidence building, argument development, and logical reasoning
are the building blocks used to make a credible case.
A literature review uses two types of argument to build its case. The first argument builds
the findings of the case. The second argument forms the case’s conclusions. The result is
a well-argued thesis. Both arguments are based on sound reasoning and logical
construction. The knowledge and the application of the processes and tools of
argumentation are the means for constructing a literature review.
Step 3. Search the Literature—Collect and Organize the
Information
A literature search determines the data to be included in the review. It does this by
winnowing the research information to only the data that provide the strongest evidence to
support the thesis case. When searching the literature, preview, select, and organize the
data for study by using the skills of skimming, scanning, and mapping the data. Next, the
researcher catalogs and documents the relevant data.
Step 4. Survey the Literature—Discover the Evidence and Build
Findings
The literature survey assembles, organizes, and analyzes the data on the current
knowledge about the topic. The data are logically arranged as evidence to produce a set of
defensible findings about what is known concerning the topic.
Step 5. Critique the Literature—Draw Conclusions
The literature critique interprets the findings produced by the survey of literature. The
findings are logically arranged as conclusions to form the argument that justifies the
thesis statement. The critique analyzes how current knowledge answers the research
question.
Step 6. Write the Review—Communicate and Evaluate the
Conclusions
Writing the review produces a document that communicates the results of the project.
Through a process of composing and refining, the literature review document becomes a
work that accurately conveys to an intended audience the results of the research. This
composition requires writing, auditing, and editing to produce a polished final product—
one that is accurate, complete, and understandable. Writing done in the first five steps of
the literature review is used as the foundation for writing the review.
Figure I.4 The Literature Review Model
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The above discussion, although condensed, relates the procedural steps necessary to
complete a literature review. The following chapters will fully describe each step and will
provide help to complete each of the tasks necessary for building a strong thesis case and
conducting a good review.
We turn now to examining the mental attitude and stance necessary to complete a project.
The next two sections of this chapter will discuss the personal dispositions required to
take on this task and the reflection process used to manage and evaluate the quality and
accuracy of the work.
Mindset: Personal Dispositions on Thinking, Doing, and
Deciding
A person’s mental and emotional state plays a vital role in the outcome of the work
undertaken. If this state is negative, a successful outcome is doubtful. As discussed earlier
in this chapter, the procedure for doing a literature review is an application of a criticalthinking process. Critical thinking, however, is not just a recipe for thinking, it is also a
specific mindset—a particular mental and emotional state. This mindset or disposition
defines how you choose to be and to act when working on an analytical task such as a
literature review.
Figure I.5 The Inquirer’s Mindset
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As depicted in Figure I.5, the critical thinker’s mindset can be divided into three types of
dispositions: intellect, action, and decision making. Each disposition identifies its traits
and behaviors.
Intellectual Dispositions
Intellectual dispositions describe the type of thinking a person chooses to use when
engaging in a task. A critical thinker chooses to be:
Inquisitive. All successful critical thinking begins with curiosity. To think critically,
one must have an inquiring mind, a natural curiosity, and a fundamental need to
learn and to discover. Curiosity creates the sparks that ignite a need to explore what
lies beyond the currently known. This fire, in turn, sprouts the seeds that become the
fragile beginnings of the research itself. Critical thinkers continually approach their
work with questions such as “Why?” “What if?” and “Is it true?” These questions and
others like them stimulate the inquiry and fuel the critical-thinking process.
Skeptical. The critical thinker is constantly raising questions. This thinker advances
with skepticism and questions everything. What is being said? What does it mean?
Is it supported by good evidence? Are the conclusions reasonably and logically
drawn? An inquirer is constantly learning, reflecting on past work in order to navigate
the present work. This thinker maintains a healthy disregard for accepted positions
and questions the factual and logical basis for any conclusions. The critical thinker
knows that everyone has biases, opinions, beliefs, values, and experiences that
create a unique perspective and attempts to keep these in perspective.
Independent. Critical thinkers do not blindly accept the positions and conclusions of
others but think for themselves. They are in the habit of raising questions, finding the
relevant information, building reasoned positions, and developing their own
conclusions. They seek and set standards for clarity of thought, relevance of
information, and reasonableness for the positions they take. Critical thinkers are not
satisfied until they truly understand both the issue under consideration and a
reasonable response that addresses it.
Honest. Critical thinkers hold themselves accountable for their biases, viewpoints,
and the conclusions taken. They continually examine and reflect on the veracity of
their positions, weighing them against new facts and ideas. They suspend judgment
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until all facts have been gathered and considered. They can adjust and reject their
opinions and positions when new facts become known.
Action Dispositions
Action dispositions describe the behaviors and traits exhibited by a critical thinker
engaged in a task. Critical thinkers exercise:
Persistence. The critical thinker is diligent. Regardless of the number of hours of
painstaking work, the confusion and miscues encountered, or the tedium and
magnitude of the task, they stay with a project until it is completed. They are dogged
about seeking relevant information, following all leads and exhausting all
possibilities.
Patience. Critical thinkers take the time necessary to carefully and thoroughly
complete the work before them. They calmly and deliberately work through the task.
They strive to be precise and understand that context and subject matter dictate
precision.
Deliberation. Critical thinkers take care to focus on the concern at hand. They strive
to maintain orderliness when working with complex tasks. They recognize their own
limitations and strive to correct their discrepancies. Critical thinkers look for the
nuances when reviewing information, constantly searching for connections and
patterns in the data. They take care to see both the trees and the forest.
Collegiality. Critical thinkers are able to share ideas and conclusions with others for
feedback and evaluation. They seek out the criticism of others with the knowledge
that sharing their information confirms or improves it.
Decision-Making Dispositions
Decision-making dispositions are the thought processes used when solving problems and
deciding the directions to pursue when engaging in a task. They are:
Reasoned and logical thinking. Critical thinkers prefer to employ rational thinking
and weigh all data for their veracity and value. They seek evidence, examine the pros
and cons of any question, and take positions based on strong evidence. Critical
thinkers trust in the process of reasoned thinking, evidence building, and rational
arguments to make their decisions.
Circumspect thinking. Critical thinkers approach the research with an open mind,
considering and learning from divergent viewpoints. They strive to maintain
objectivity and guard against having any predetermined conclusions. The critical
thinker is open to seeing all results of an inquiry and weighing the value of each
piece of evidence and each position taken. When taking a position, this thinker
maintains flexibility in considering alternatives. The critical thinker reflects
continually.
Ethics
No discussion about mindset would be complete without addressing the moral issue of
ethical behavior.
Every undertaking has a code of ethics. Researching and writing are no different. Consider
the following tenants before you begin work:
Do not take data out of context. Researchers may not manipulate data to defend a
preferred outcome. This is not just a matter of fabricating data. It also includes
extending their value.
Do your own research. Librarians and other assistants are there to point you in the
right direction, but they should not be the ones to paddle the canoe through the
research sites and library stacks. Doing your own research is especially important
when researching online where information is available without regard to its veracity.
Present only what you believe to be factual. Do not use fallacious arguments to
prove a case.
Present all sides of the question. Do not be tempted to strengthen a case by omitting
divergent evidence. You are searching for the truth, not enforcing a personal opinion.
Plagiarism can easily sneak into a review unless it is carefully avoided. Remember
that plagiarism is not just using another person’s words. It also includes presenting
ideas as your own when they are actually from another’s research source.
You must be the sole writer of your literature review. Outside readers and editors can
be very helpful, but they must maintain an advisory role and not become the authors
of the research project.
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The ethics disposition must stand above all other dispositions as an overriding behavior
for conducting research. Ethical behavior is an essential quality of the good scientist.
Reflective Oversight
After consideration of procedure and dispositions as essential elements for critical
thinking and for the work required for doing a literature review, the discussion turns to how
to manage and evaluate this work. While you, the reader, might define this concept as
metacognition, we are describing it as reflective oversight. By reflective oversight we
mean the continuous reflection an individual uses to regulate, assess, and correct the
processes used to take on a task.
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation is personal discipline used to manage and direct the quality of the work.
Self-regulation can be described as considering the quality of the thinking you use when
doing the work. This oversight process self-assesses and self-corrects. When engaging in
a task such as a literature review, one continually reflects and monitors the procedures and
thinking processes used to ensure the work’s accuracy and validity.
Self-Assessment
The critical first step of self-regulation is assessment. What did I do? How did it work?
These are the essential questions used when self-assessing. Self-consciously reflect on
the following:
The analytical reasoning used to verify the results produced
The correct application of procedures and processes selected to conduct the task
The extent to which one’s thinking is influenced by deficiencies in knowledge, by
stereotypes, prejudices, emotions, or any factors that constrain objectivity and
rationality
The extent to which one’s dispositions influence the creation of an unbiased, fairminded, thorough, and objective interpretation
Are my personal biases and positions affecting the accuracy of the work? Am I following
quality critical-thinking procedures? Am I maintaining constructive dispositions about my
work? Am I using good reasoning skills? Questions such as these are used to assess and
oversee quality.
Self-Correction
The final step of self-regulation is self-correction. When self-assessment reveals
deficiencies, take steps to design reasonable solutions to remedy the problem. When errors
are made, correct them.
Reflective oversight is an essential aspect of the critical-thinking process. When applied to
doing a literature review, it can guarantee efficiency, quality, and accuracy. More than this,
reflective oversight is a learning process. The more we reflect on our actions, the more we
become proficient at what we do.
Doing a literature review is a matter of procedure, disposition, and reflection. Each of these
concepts is an essential element of the applied critical-thinking process used to
successfully complete the work.
Before proceeding to Chapter 1, here are a number of tips that will help you become
organized for the work ahead.
Plan Wisely Before You Begin
The secret of any successful journey—and a literature review is a kind of journey—is
planning and preparation. The successful reviewer must be physically and emotionally
ready and must have a plan of action. Doing a literature review well demands a
commitment of focused time and effort, which will probably require a fundamental
reorganization of daily life. A project such as a literature review cannot take place “when
time allows” because time would probably never allow. Rather than trying to fit this new
work into the already-busy day, the reviewer should seek creative solutions to reorganize
the work schedule and the workplace.
First, organize a workspace free from distractions. You will need a computer with an
Internet connection, copying and printing capability, notepads, writing instruments, and
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filing space. You will also need at least one high-quality dictionary and a thesaurus.
Reference works on research methods and writing skills can also be useful. Reference
tools, while available in hard copy, can now be found in abundance on the Internet and in
your institution’s virtual library. Plan the space and arrange it before you begin. As with any
complex project, the literature review demands concentrated mental focus. Mental
discipline, in turn, demands emotional balance. Make sure that your workspace supports
this frame of mind.
Having a plan decreases anxiety and ambiguity. It also increases productivity. Develop a
three-tiered plan. First, create an overall project plan and timeline. Second, subdivide the
overall plan into sections that act as intermediate goals for the project. Finally, build daily
plans from the subsections to schedule the work for each daily session. Remember, a plan
implies a goal. Give yourself permission to modify your plan, but never proceed without
one. Plans provide direction and organization. They build a structure to address the
ambiguous and complex world of the literature review. Below are some suggestions for
planning.
1. Use the literature review model, Figure I.4, to form the overall plan. First, estimate the
available monthly project time. Calculate this in hours. Then, estimate the number of
hours it will take to complete the tasks for each step of the literature review. If you
are not comfortable assigning task times, consult with colleagues or faculty who are
experienced in literature research. Next, build an overall plan and timeline for the
research. Be sure to include extra time for unplanned eventualities.
2. Subdivide the plan by benchmarks that will serve as intermediate goals for the
research. These benchmarks can be time or task driven. A monthly design is one
choice if time is the measurement for progress. Use the steps of the literature review
model if you use task completion as the measure of progress. Put the benchmarks
on a timeline, and readjust the overall plan as necessary. The benchmark division
drives the work. It provides a solid schedule that addresses the tasks. At this point,
the work becomes tangible.
3. Build daily plans for action. Each work session must have its goals. If possible,
schedule at least a 2-hour block of time for any work session. Early morning works
best for many accomplished writers, allowing the reviewer to focus and concentrate
more easily. Schedule quiet time with no interruptions. We recommend daily
sessions. While 2-hour sessions each day may be impractical, daily work on the
project is advantageous. Allowing extended time between work sessions will blur
your focus. The literature review is a serious undertaking that builds one day at a
time. You cannot succeed by leaving the work for the last minute. Of course, as you
use the daily schedule, the benchmarks and the overall plan may need to change.
Tips
Study the literature review model (Figure I.4). Memorize it if possible. Use this figure to keep
yourself on track.
Select a topic that is important to you. A subject of true concern or curiosity will produce better
work than a topic chosen for expediency.
Writing starts now. Write out the topic. Include in this earliest writing
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