PSYCH 107 CSUS Psychology Controversial Issues Critical Thinking Essay

1.  Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study – How do the participants  demonstrate  critical thinking skills and why are there differences?

Chapter 1
Critical Thinking: Why It’s Important
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn the
basics of critical thinking and be able to identify
common barriers to effective critical thought.
Critical Thinking: A Vital Skill
2


Critical thinking provides us with a crucial set of skills we
need to make decisions and resolve issues that arise in
our everyday lives.
Critical thinking, like logic, requires learning how to
think rather than simply what to think. The word “critical”
is derived from the Greek word kritikos, which means
“discernment,” “the ability to judge,” or “decision
making.”
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Milgram Experiment
3
Courtesy of Alexandra Milgram
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Mind Control – segments 15, 16 7:38
4
Imagine that you are a participant in Milgram’s study of obedience.
What would you have done if you protested and the experimenter in
charge answered, “The experiment requires that you continue”?
Discuss your answer in light of the stages of cognitive development.
Discuss also what you might do to make it less likely that you would
obey an authority figure in a situation such as the Milgram study.
Milgram Redux Segments 11-end 14:30 min
Discuss ways in which the participants in the film demonstrated, or
failed to demonstrate, good critical-thinking skills.
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But in Obedience to Authority, Milgram describes 18 other variance.
And there were many more involving, in all, almost 1000 participants.
5
For example, when Milgram changed the location of the experiment from Yale University to downtown
Bridgeport, obedience dropped to 47.5%.
When teacher and learner were in close proximity to each other, compliance fell to 40%.
When the experimenter simply phoned in commands, or when someone else took over halfway
through, obedience fell to 23% and 20% respectively.
And when there were two experimenters who argued with each other, obedience fell to 10%.
When they issued contradictory orders, it fell to 0%.
And what this reminds us is that Milgram’s experiments were not just about obedience.
They were also about disobedience, why people sometimes obey toxic orders and sometimes refuse.
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Logic
6


Logic is a crucial part of critical thinking and requires
good analytical skills. Logic is defined as “the study of
the methods and principles used in distinguishing
correct (good) arguments from incorrect (bad)
arguments.”
Critical thinking requires applying the rules of logic as
well as gathering evidence, evaluating it, and coming up
with a plan of action.
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Logic versus Opinion
7


In contrast to arguments based on logic, arguments
based on opinion are defined as “beliefs based solely
on personal feelings rather than reason or facts.”
While we are all entitled to our opinions, arguments
based solely on opinions are not necessarily reasonable
and may encourage us to make poor choices or act in
ways we may later regret. Sometimes uninformed
opinions can be harmful, both to us and to society.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Cognitive Development in College
Students
8

Educational researcher William Perry, Jr. (1913–1998)
identified several stages of cognitive development in
college students. Later researchers simplified his
findings into three separate developmental stages:
dualism, relativism, and commitment.
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Stage One: Dualism
9
Dualism is the first stage of cognitive development and
is common among freshmen and many sophomores.
It involves the assimilation of knowledge and experience
in a simple, “dualistic” way, viewing issues as either right
or wrong. Dualistic thinkers see knowledge existing
outside themselves and look to authority figures for
answers.
 When researching an issue, dualistic students often
exhibit confirmation bias, which involves only seeking
out evidence that supports their views, and dismissing or
ignoring contradictory evidence.

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Stage Two: Relativism
10

Rather than accepting that ambiguity may be
unavoidable, relativistic thinkers reject the dualistic
viewpoint and move to the opposite extreme arguing
that all truth is relative or just a matter of opinion. People
at this stage believe that stating one’s opinion is the
proper form of communication, and they look down on
challenging others’ opinions as judgmental and even
disrespectful. Despite their outward relativism, they still
look to authority figures, such as professors, to confirm
their opinions.
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Stage Three: Commitment
11

As students mature, they come to the realization that not
all thinking is equally valid. Not only can authority figures
be mistaken, but a certain level of uncertainty and
ambiguity is unavoidable. When students at this stage
experience uncertainty, they are now able to make
decisions and commit to particular positions on the basis
of reason and the best evidence available. At the same
time, as independent thinkers, they are open to
challenge and are flexible enough to change their
positions as new evidence becomes available.
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Characteristics of a Good Critical
Thinker (1)
12
Critical thinking is not a single skill. Rather, it is a collection
of skills that enhance and reinforce each other. These
skills include:
 Analytical skills – Your ability to analyze and provide
logical support for your beliefs
 Communication and literacy skills – Your ability to listen,
speak, and write effectively and the awareness of your
own communication style
 Research and inquiry skills – Your ability to gather,
evaluate, and synthesize supporting evidence
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Characteristics of a Good Critical
Thinker (2)
13
Flexibility and tolerance of ambiguity – The ability to
flexibly adapt to changing situations
 Open-minded skepticism – The ability to overcome
personal prejudices and biases and critically examine an
issue before coming to a decision; this often involves the
method of doubt, first proposed by French philosopher
René Descartes (1596–1650), which involves setting
aside our preconceptions and adopting a default
position of skepticism.

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René Descartes
14
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15
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Characteristics of a Good Critical
Thinker (3)
16
Creative problem solving skills – The ability to view
problems from multiple perspectives and come up with
original solutions to complex problems
 Attentiveness, mindfulness, and curiosity – The ability to
remain curious and attentive to the world and consider
multiple opinions
 Collaborative learning skills – The ability to recognize
and anticipate the reactions of others and a willingness
to collaborate with others to share and gain knowledge

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Multiple Potentially Deadly EF3 Tornadoes,
Causing Millions of Dollars of Damage
17
© Stewart F. House/Getty Images
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An MP3 Player
18
© Justin Sullivan/Getty Images
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Critical Thinking and Self-Development
19
Critical thinking is not just about abstract thought. It is also
about self-improvement and your whole development as a
person. Self-examination is an important part of this
process. Good critical thinkers take charge of their lives
and choices. By contrast, poor critical thinkers allow
themselves to be controlled by circumstances and often
deal ineffectively with problems, which often results in
depression, anger, or other emotional problems.
Developing a rational life plan is an effective way of
avoiding these problems.
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Age Differences in Depression
20
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A Life Plan Is Like a Flight Plan
21
© Geoff Tompkinson/The Image Bank/Getty Images
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Other Features of a Good Critical
Thinkers
22

Effective critical thinkers exhibit other traits and
characteristics. These include:
 The ability to challenge social injustices as well as being
able to respond intelligently and thoughtfully to challenges
to our own belief systems
 The cultivation of high self-esteem, proactive attitude, and
self-direction, traits common in autonomous critical thinking
 The involvement in democratic politics and the ability to
critically analyze political actors and issues
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Martin Luther King
23
© Everett/CSU Archives/Newscom
King was willing to go to jail, rather than back down on his goal
of equality for all people.
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Elizabeth Cady Stanton
© Bettmann/Corbis
24
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Barriers to Effective Critical Thinking
25

Effective critical thinking involves sharpening our
resistance to irrational or narrow-minded arguments.
Recognizing these irrational or narrow-minded
arguments can sharpen our critical thinking skills and
help devise effective strategies to counter them.
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Prisoners at Guantanamo Bay
© Ron Sachs/CNP/Corbis
26
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Tiananmen Square, China
27
© Jeff Widener/AP Images
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The Three-Tier Model of Thinking
28

The processes used in critical thinking can be broken
down into three tiers or levels: experience,
interpretation, and analysis.
 Experience, the foundational level of critical thinking,
involves firsthand experience as well as empirical facts
derived from other sources.
 Interpretation involves trying to make sense of our
experiences.
 Analysis involves raising our level of thinking and critically
analyzing our interpretations of an experience.
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The Three Levels of Thinking
29
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Resistance
30

None of us likes to be wrong and when we are
challenged, we often exhibit resistance, which is defined
as “the use of immature defense mechanisms that are
rigid, impulsive, maladaptive, and nonanalytical.”
Resistance acts as a barrier to effective critical thinking.
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Types of Resistance (1)
31
There are several types of resistance; they include
avoidance, anger, clichés, denial, ignorance, conformity,
struggling, and distractions.
 Avoidance involves escaping or intentionally avoiding
certain people and situations.
 Anger involves responding to challenges with threatening
physical or verbal cues.
 Clichés are often-repeated statements that sidetrack the
real issues and prevent effective critical thought.
 Denial involves ignoring or refuting challenging viewpoints
or evidence.
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Types of Resistance (2)
32

Ignorance is a type of resistance where we intentionally
avoid learning about a particular issue.
Conformity involves going along with group or peer
viewpoints even when you disagree with them.
 Struggling involves getting so caught up in the minute
details of an issue that nothing gets accomplished.
 Distractions are hindrances that prevent clear thinking and
effective critical analysis.

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Is Ignorance Bliss?
33
© Corbis
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Narrow-Mindedness
34
Like resistance, narrow-mindedness and rigid beliefs, such
as absolutism, egocentrism, fear of challenge,
ethnocentrism and anthropocentrism, act as barriers to
effective critical thinking.
 Absolutism is a perspective that sees the world in “black
and white” absolutes.
 Egocentrism is a perspective that sees the self as the
center of all things.
 Fear of challenge involves reluctance to stand up to others
who we believe may have different opinions
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Statue of Buddha
35
© Photodisc/Getty Images
According to Buddhist teaching, mental hindrances like
distractions keep us from clear understanding.
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Stephen Hawking (1)
© David Silverman/Getty Images
36
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Narrow-Mindedness (2)
37


Ethnocentrism is an uncritical and unjustified belief in the
inherent superiority of one’s own group or culture.
Anthropocentrism is a belief that humans are the central
or the most significant entity in the universe.
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Funeral of Sunando Sen
38
© Matthew McDermott/Polaris/Newscom
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Rationalization and Doublethink
39
When we are faced with difficult choices or decisions, we
often engage in rationalization to justify our decisions
made on the basis of personal opinion or bias.
Because rationalization involves ignoring competing
claims, people who engage in it often get caught up in
doublethink. It is defined as holding two contradictory
views, or “double standards,” at the same time and
believing both to be true.
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Cognitive and Social Dissonance
40
We are most likely to modify or critically analyze our views
when we encounter cognitive or social dissonance,
which occurs when we encounter new ideas or social
behavior that contradicts or conflicts with our worldviews.
Evidence suggests that when people change their
behavior, changes in their beliefs follow.
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U.S. Median Income by Race,
Ethnicity, and Gender, 2013
41
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Conclusions
42
As explored in the previous slides, effective critical thinking
requires development of a collection of skills, including
attentiveness, open-mindedness, strong communication,
and effective analytical, research, and problem-solving
skills.
Critical thinkers also need to be aware of barriers to
effective critical thinking, such as habitual use of
resistance and different types of narrow-mindedness.
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Perspectives on Affirmative Action in
College Admissions
© Bill Pugliano/Getty Images
43
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Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
1963, Vol. 67, No. 4, 371-378
BEHAVIORAL STUDY OF OBEDIENCE1
STANLEY MILGRAM 2
Yale University
This article describes a procedure for the study of destructive obedience in
the laboratory. It consists of ordering a naive S to administer increasingly
more severe punishment to a victim in the context of a learning experiment.
Punishment is administered by means of a shock generator with 30 graded
switches ranging from Slight Shock to Danger: Severe Shock. The victim is a
confederate of the E. The primary dependent variable is the maximum shock
the S is willing to administer before he refuses to continue further. 26 Ss
obeyed the experimental commands fully, and administered the highest shock
on the generator. 14 Ss broke off the experiment at some point after the
victim protested and refused to provide further answers. The procedure created
extreme levels of nervous tension in some Ss. Profuse sweating, trembling, and
stuttering were typical expressions of this emotional disturbance. One unexpected sign of tension—yet to be explained—was the regular occurrence of
nervous laughter, which in some Ss developed into uncontrollable seizures.
The variety of interesting behavioral dynamics observed in the experiment,
the reality of the situation for the S, and the possibility of parametric variation within the framework of the procedure, point to the fruitfulness of
further study.
Obedience is as basic an element in the
structure of social life as one can point to.
Some system of authority is a requirement
of all communal living, and it is only the
man dwelling in isolation who is not forced
to respond, through defiance or submission,
to the commands of others. Obedience, as
a determinant of behavior, is of particular
relevance to our time. It has been reliably
established that from 1933-45 millions of
innocent persons were systematically slaughtered on command. Gas chambers were built,
death camps were guarded, daily quotas of
corpses were produced with the same efficiency as the manufacture of appliances.
These inhumane policies may have originated
in the mind of a single person, but they could
only be carried out on a massive scale if a
very large number of persons obeyed orders.
Obedience is the psychological mechanism
that links individual action to political purpose. It is the dispositional cement that binds
men to systems of authority. Facts of recent
history and observation in daily life suggest
1
This research was supported by a grant (NSF
G-17916) from the National Science Foundation.
Exploratory studies conducted in 1960 were supported by a grant from the Higgins Fund at Yale
University. The research assistance of Alan C. Elms
and Jon Wayland is gratefully acknowledged.
2
Now at Harvard University.
that for many persons obedience may be a
deeply ingrained behavior tendency, indeed,
a prepotent impulse overriding training in
ethics, sympathy, and moral conduct. C. P.
Snow (1961) points to its importance when
he writes:
When you think of the long and gloomy history
of man, you will find more hideous crimes have
been committed in the name of obedience than
have ever been committed in the name of rebellion.
If you doubt that, read William Shirer’s “Rise and
Fall of the Third Reich.” The German Officer Corps
were brought up in the most rigorous code of
obedience . . . in the name of obedience they were
party to, and assisted in, the most wicked large
scale actions in the history of the world [p. 24].
While the particular form of obedience
dealt with in the present study has its antecedents in these episodes, it must not be
thought all obedience entails acts of aggression against others. Obedience serves numerous productive functions. Indeed, the very
life of society is predicated on its existence.
Obedience may be ennobling and educative
and refer to acts of charity and kindness,
as well as to destruction.
General Procedure
A procedure was devised which seems
useful as a tool for studying obedience
(Milgram, 1961). It consists of ordering
371
372
STANLEY MILGRAM
a naive subject to administer electric shock
to a victim. A simulated shock generator is
used, with 30 clearly marked voltage levels
that range from IS to 450 volts. The instrument bears verbal designations that range
from Slight Shock to Danger: Severe Shock.
The responses of the victim, who is a trained
confederate of the experimenter, are standardized. The orders to administer shocks are
given to the naive subject in the context of
a “learning experiment” ostensibly set up to
study the effects of punishment on memory.
As the experiment proceeds the naive subject
is commanded to administer increasingly
more intense shocks to the victim, even to
the point of reaching the level marked
Danger: Severe Shock. Internal resistances
become stronger, and at a certain point the
subject refuses to go on with the experiment. Behavior prior to this rupture is considered “obedience,” in that the subject complies with the commands of the experimenter.
The point of rupture is the act of disobedience. A quantitative value is assigned to the
subject’s performance based on the maximum
intensity shock he is willing to administer
before he refuses to participate further. Thus
for any particular subject and for any particular experimental condition the degree of
obedience may be specified with a numerical
value. The crux of the study is to systematically vary the factors believed to alter
the degree of obedience to the experimental
commands.
The technique allows important variables
to be manipulated at several points in the
experiment. One may vary aspects of the
source of command, content and form of command, instrumentalities for its execution,
target object, general social setting, etc. The
problem, therefore, is not one of designing increasingly more numerous experimental conditions, but of selecting those that best illuminate the process of obedience from the sociopsychological standpoint.
Related Studies
The inquiry bears an important relation to
philosophic analyses of obedience and authority (Arendt, 1958; Friedrich, 1958; Weber,
1947), an early experimental study of
obedience by Frank (1944), studies in “authoritarianism” (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik,
Levinson, & Sanford, 1950; Rokeach, 1961),
and a recent series of analytic and empirical
studies in social power (Cartwright, 1959).
It owes much to the long concern with
suggestion in social psychology, both in its
normal forms (e.g., Binet, 1900) and in its
clinical manifestations (Charcot, 1881). But
it derives, in the first instance, from direct
observation of a social fact; the individual
who is commanded by a legitimate authority
ordinarily obeys. Obedience comes easily and
often. It is a ubiquitous and indispensable
feature of social life.
METHOD
Subjects
The subjects were 40 males between the ages of
20 and 50, drawn from New Haven and the surrounding communities. Subjects were obtained by
a newspaper advertisement and direct mail solicitation. Those who responded to the appeal believed
they were to participate in a study of memory and
learning at Yale University. A wide range of
occupations is represented in the sample. Typical
subjects were postal clerks, high school teachers,
salesmen, engineers, and laborers. Subjects ranged in
educational level from one who had not finished
elementary school, to those who had doctorate and
other professional degrees. They were paid $4.50 for
their participation in the experiment. However, subjects were told that payment was simply for coming
to the laboratory, and that the money was theirs
no matter what happened after they arrived. Table 1
shows the proportion of age and occupational types
assigned to the experimental condition.
Personnel and Locale
The experiment was conducted on the grounds of
Yale University in the elegant interaction laboratory.
(This detail is relevant to the perceived legitimacy
of the experiment. In further variations, the experiTABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF AGE AND OCCUPATIONAL TYPES
IN THE EXPERIMENT
Occupations
20-29
years
30-39
years
40-50
years
Percentage
of total
(Occupations)
Workers, skilled
and unskilled
4
5
6
37.S
Sales, business,
and white-collar
3
6
7
40.0
Professional
1
S
3
22.5
Percentage of
total (Age)
20
40
40
Note.—Total N = 40.
OBEDIENCE
ment was dissociated from the university, with
consequences for performance.) The role of experimenter was played by a 31-year-old high school
teacher of biology. His manner was impassive,
and his appearance somewhat stern throughout the
experiment. He was dressed in a gray technician’s
coat. The victim was played by a 47-year-old
accountant, trained for the role; he was of IrishAmerican stock, whom most observers found mildmannered and likable.
Procedure
One naive subject and one victim (an accomplice)
performed in each experiment. A pretext had to be
devised that would justify the administration of
electric shock by the naive subject. This was effectively accomplished by the cover story. After a
general introduction on the presumed relation between punishment and learning, subjects were told:
But actually, we know very little about the
effect of punishment on learning, because almost
no truly scientific studies have been made of it
in human beings.
For instance, we don’t know how much punishment is best for learning—and we don’t know
how much difference it makes as to who is giving
the punishment, whether an adult learns best from
a younger or an older person than himself—or
many things of that sort.
So in this study we are bringing together a
number of adults of different occupations and
ages. And we’re asking some of them to be
teachers and some of them to be learners.
We want to find out just what effect different
people have on each other as teachers and learners, and also what effect punishment will have
on learning in this situation.
Therefore, I’m going to ask one of you to be
the teacher here tonight and the other one to be
the learner.
Does either of you have a preference?
Subjects then drew slips of paper from a hat to
determine who would be the teacher and who would
be the learner in the experiment. The drawing was
rigged so that the naive subject was always the
teacher and the accomplice always the learner. (Both
slips contained the word “Teacher.”) Immediately
after the drawing, the teacher and learner were
taken to an adjacent room and the learner was
strapped into an “electric chair” apparatus.
The experimenter explained that the straps were
to prevent excessive movement while the learner
was being shocked. The effect was to make it impossible for him to escape from the situation. An
electrode was attached to the learner’s wrist, and
electrode paste was applied “to avoid blisters and
burns.” Subjects were told that the electrode was
attached to the shock generator in the adjoining
room.
In order to improve credibility the experimenter
declared, in response to a question by the learner:
“Although the shocks can be extremely painful, they
cause no permanent tissue damage.”
373
Learning task. The lesson administered by the
subject was a paired-associate learning task. The
subject read a series of word pairs to the learner,
and then read the first word of the pair along with
four terms. The learner was to indicate which of
the four terms had originally been paired with the
first word. He communicated his answer by pressing
one of four switches in front of him, which in turn
lit up one of four numbered quadrants in an answerbox located atop the shock generator.
Shock generator. The instrument panel consists of
30 lever switches set in a horizontal line. Each
switch is clearly labeled with a voltage designation that ranges from IS to 450 volts. There is a
15-volt increment from one switch to the next going
from left to right. In addition, the following verbal
designations are clearly indicated for groups of four
switches going from left to right: Slight Shock,
Moderate Shock, Strong Shock, Very Strong Shock,
Intense Shock, Extreme Intensity Shock, Danger:
Severe Shock. (Two switches after this last designation are simply marked XXX.)
Upon depressing a switch: a pilot light corresponding to each switch is illuminated in bright red; an
electric buzzing is heard; an electric blue light,
labeled “voltage energizer,” flashes; the dial on the
voltage meter swings to the right; various relay
clicks are sounded.
The upper left-hand corner of the generator is
labeled Shock Generator, Type ZLB, Dyson Instrument Company, Waltham, Mass. Output IS Volts4SO Volts.
Details of the instrument were carefully handled
to insure an appearance of authenticity. The panel
was engraved by precision industrial engravers, and
all components were of high quality. No subject in
the experiment suspected that the instrument was
merely a simulated shock generator.3
Sample shock. Each naive subject is given a
sample shock on the shock generator, prior to beginning his run as teacher. This shock is always
45 volts, and is applied by pressing the third switch
of the generator. The shock is applied to the wrist
of the naive subject, and has its source in a 45-volt
battery wired into the generator. This further
convinces the subject of the authenticity of the
generator.
Shock instructions. The subject is told to administer a shock to the learner each time he gives a
8
A related technique, making use of a shock
generator, was reported by Buss (1961) for the
study of aggression in the laboratory. Despite the
considerable similarity of technical detail in the
experimental procedures, both investigators proceeded
in ignorance of the other’s work. Milgram provided
plans and photographs of his shock generator, experimental procedure, and first results in a report to the
National Science Foundation in January 1961. This
report received only limited circulation. Buss reported his procedure 6 months later, but to a wider
audience. Subsequently, technical information and
reports were exchanged. The present article was first
received in the Editor’s office on December 27, 1961;
it was resubmitted with deletions on July 27, 1962.
374
STANLEY MILGRAM
wrong response. Moreover—and this is the key
command—the subject is instructed to “move one
level higher on the shock generator each time the
learner flashes a wrong answer.” He is also instructed
to announce the voltage level before administering
a shock. This serves to continually remind subjects
of the increasing intensity of shocks administered
to the learner.
Preliminary and regular run. Pretests revealed
that the procedure of reading words and administering shocks requires some practice before it can be
handled smoothly. Therefore, immediately preceding
the regular run, the teacher is given a preliminary
series of 10 words to read to the learner. There
are 3 neutral words in the. practice series (i.e., words
that the learner answers correctly), so that shocks
are administered for 7 of the words, with the
maximum shock at 105 volts (moderate shock).
Almost all subjects master the procedure by the
time the preliminary run is over.
Subjects are then presented with a second list,
and are told that the procedure is the same as for
the first list; the experimenter adds, however:
When you get to the bottom of the list, repeat
it over again, and continue giving shocks, until
the learner has learned all the pairs correctly.
The experimenter instructs the subject to,
start from 15 volts and increase the shock level
one step each time the learner gives a wrong
answer.
Feedback from the victim. In all conditions the
learner gives a predetermined set of responses to
the word pair test, based on a schedule of approximately three wrong answers to one correct answer.
In the present experimental condition no vocal response or other sign of protest is heard from the
learner until Shock Level 300 is reached. When the
300-volt shock is administered, the learner pounds
on the wall of the room in which he is bound to
the electric chair. The pounding can be heard by
the subject. From this point on, the learner’s answers
no longer appear on the four-way panel.
At this juncture, subjects ordinarily turn to the
experimenter for guidance. The experimenter instructs the subject to treat the absence of a response
as a wrong answer, and to shock the subject according to the usual schedule. He advises the subjects to
allow S-10 s«conds before considering no response
as a wrong answer, and to increase the shock level
one step each time the learner fails to respond correctly. The learner’s pounding is repeated after the
315-volt shock is administered; afterwards he is not
heard from, nor do his answers reappear on the
four-way signal box.
Experimenter feedback. At various points in the
experiment the subject may turn to the experimenter
for advice on whether he should continue to administer shocks. Or he may indicate that he does not
wish to go on. It was important to standardize
the experimenter’s responses to these inquiries and
reactions.
If the subject indicated his unwillingness to go
on, the experimenter responded with a sequence of
“prods,” using as many as necessary to bring the
subject into line.
Prod 1 : Please continue, or Please go on.
Prod 2: The experiment requires that you continue.
Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue.
Prod 4: You have no other choice, you must
go on.
The prods were always made in sequence: Only
if Prod 1 had been unsuccessful, could Prod 2 be
used. If the subject refused to obey the experimenter after Prod 4, the experiment was terminated.
The experimenter’s tone of voice was at all times
firm, but not impolite. The sequence was begun
anew on each occasion that the subject balked or
showed reluctance to follow orders.
Special prods. If the subject asked if the learner
was liable to suffer permanent physical injury, the
experimenter said:
Although the shocks may be painful, there is
no permanent tissue damage, so please go on.
[Followed by Prods 2, 3, and 4 if necessary.]
If the subject said that the learner did not want
to go on, the experimenter replied:
Whether the learner likes it or not, you must
go on until he has learned all the word pairs
correctly. So please go on. [Followed by Prods
2, 3, and 4 if necessary.]
Dependent Measures
The primary dependent measure for any subject
is the maximum shock he administers before he
refuses to go any further, In principle this may
vary from 0 (for a subject who refuses to administer
even the first shock) to 30 (for a subject who
administers the highest shock on the generator). A
subject who breaks off the experiment at any point
prior to administering the thirtieth shock level is
termed a defiant subject. One who complies with
experimental commands fully, and proceeds to administer all shock levels commanded, is termed an
obedient subject.
Further records. With few exceptions, experimental sessions were recorded on magnetic tape.
Occasional photographs were taken through one-way
mirrors. Notes were kept on any unusual behavior
occurring during the course of the experiments. On
occasion, additional observers were directed to write
objective descriptions of the subjects’ behavior. The
latency and duration of shocks were measured by
accurate timing devices.
Interview and dehoax. Following the experiment,
subjects were interviewed; open-ended questions,
projective measures, and attitude scales were employed. After the interview, procedures
taken to assure that the s’uoject
‘
would leave the
RBoratory in a state of well being. A friendly
reconciliation was arranged between thejubject and
5ie~vlctimj and an effort was made to^Feduce any
tensions that arose as a result of the experiment.
OBEDIENCE
RESULTS
Preliminary Notions
Before giving an account of the experimental results, it is instructive to consider
how persons predict others will perform when
commanded to administer powerful shocks
to another person. Fourteen Yale seniors, all
psychology majors, were provided with a
detailed description of the experimental situation. They were asked to reflect carefully on
it, and to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical subjects. More specifically, they were
instructed to plot the distribution of obedience of “100 Americans of diverse occupations, and ranging in age from 20 to SO
years,” who were placed in the experimental
situation.
There was considerable agreement among
the respondents on the expected behavior of
hypothetical subjects. All respondents predicted that only an insignificant minority
would go through to the end of the shock
series. (The estimates ranged from 0 to 3%;
i.e., the most “pessimistic” member of the class
predicted that of 100 persons, 3 would continue through to the most potent shock available on the shock generator—450 volts.)
The class mean was 1.2%. The question was
also posed informally to colleagues of the
author, and the most general feeling was
that few if any subjects would go beyond
the designation Very Strong Shock.
Result of Experiment I
Subjects accept situation. With few exceptions subjects were convinced of the reality
of the experimental situation, that they were
administering shocks to another person, and
the most potent shocks were extremely
painful. In the post-experimental interview
subjects were asked: “How painful to
the learner were the last few shocks that
you administered to him?” Subjects were
instructed to indicate their answers on a
printed 14-point scale ranging from “Not at
all painful” to “Extremely painful.” The
modal response was 14 (Extremely painful)
with the mean at 13.42.
Signs of extreme tension. Many subjects
showed signs of nervousness in the experimental situation, and especially upon administering the more powerful shocks. In a
375
large number of cases the degree of tension
reached extremes that are rarely seen in
sociopsychological laboratory studies. Subjects were observed to sweat, tremble, stutter,
bite their lips, groan, and dig their fingernails into their flesh. These were characteristic rather than exceptional responses to the
experiment.
One sign of tension was the regular occurrence of nervous laughing fits. Fourteen of
the 40 subjects showed definite signs of
nervous laughter and smiling. The laughter
seemed entirely out of place, even bizarre.
Full-blown, uncontrollable seizures were observed for 3 subjects. On one occasion we
observed a seizure so violently convulsive
that it was necessary to call a halt to the
experiment. The subject, a 46-year-old encyclopedia salesman, was seriously embarrassed by his untoward and uncontrollable
behavior. In the post-experimental interviews
subjects took pains to point out that they
were not sadistic types, and that the laughter
did not mean they enjoyed shocking the
victim.
Distribution of scores. It had been conjectured that persons would not, in general,
agree to administer shocks beyond the level
designated as Very Strong Shock. The distribution of maximum shocks for this experiment is shown in Table 2. The obtained distribution of scores deviates radically from the
prediction.
Upon command of the experimenter, each
of the 40 subjects went beyond the expected
breakoff point. No subject stopped prior to
administering Shock Level 20. (At this level
—300 volts—the victim kicks on the wall and
no longer provides answers to the teacher’s
multiple-choice questions.)
Of the 40 subjects, 5 refused to obey the
experimental commands beyond the 300-voIt
level. Four more subjects administered one
further shock, and then refused to go on.
Two broke off at the 330-volt level, and
1 each at 345, 360, and 375 volts. Thus a
total of 14 subjects defied the experimenter.
It is instructive to reprint their remarks at
the point of defiance, as transcribed from the
tape recordings:
[0124] I think he’s trying to communicate, he’s
knocking. . . . Well it’s not fair to shock the guy
. . . these are terrific volts. I don’t think this is
STANLEY MILGEAM
376
TABLE 2
DISTRIBUTION or BREAKorr POINTS
Verbal designation and
voltage indication
Slight Shock
IS
30
45
60
Moderate Shock
75
90
105
120
Strong Shock
135
150
165
180
Very Strong Shock
195
210
225
240
Intense Shock
255
270
285
300
Extreme Intensity Shock
315
330
345
360
Danger: Severe Shock
Number of subjects for whom
this was maximum shock
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
4
2
1
1
375
390
405
420
1
0
0
0
XXX
435
450
0
26
very humane. . . . Oh, I can’t go on with this; no,
this isn’t right. It’s a hell of an experiment. The guy
is suffering in there. No, I don’t want to go on.
This is crazy. [Subject refused to administer more
shocks.]
[0123] He’s banging in there. I’m gonna chicken
out. I’d like to continue, but I can’t do that to
a man. . . . I’m sorry I can’t do that to a man.
I’ll hurt his heart. You take your check. . . . No
really, I couldn’t do it.
These subjects were frequently in a highly
agitated and even angered state. Sometimes,
verbal protest was at a minimum, and the
subject simply got up from his chair in front
of the shock generator, and indicated that
he wished to leave the laboratory.
Of the 40 subjects, 26 obeyed the orders
of the experimenter to the end, proceeding
to punish the victim until they reached the
most potent shock available on the shock
generator. At that point, the experimenter
called a halt to the session. (The maximum
shock is labeled 450 volts, and is two steps
beyond the designation: Danger: Severe
Shock.) Although obedient subjects continued
to administer shocks, they often did so under
extreme stress. Some expressed reluctance to
administer shocks beyond the 300-volt level,
and displayed fears similar to those who
defied the experimenter; yet they obeyed.
After the maximum shocks had been delivered, and the experimenter called a halt
to the proceedings, many obedient subjects
heaved sighs of relief, mopped their brows,
rubbed their fingers over their eyes, or
nervously fumbled cigarettes. Some shook
their heads, apparently in regret. Some subjects had remained calm throughout the
experiment, and displayed only minimal signs
of tension from beginning to end.
DISCUSSION
The experiment yielded two findings that
were surprising. The first finding concerns
the sheer strength of obedient tendencies
manifested in this situation. Subjects have
learned from childhood that it is a fundamental breach of moral conduct to hurt another person against his will. Yet, 26 subjects
abandon this tenet in following the instructions of an authority who has no special
powers to enforce his commands. To disobey
would bring no material loss to the subject;
no punishment would ensue. It is clear from
the remarks and outward behavior of many
participants that in punishing the victim they
are often acting against their own values.
Subjects often expressed deep disapproval of
shocking a man in the face of his objections,
and others denounced it as stupid and senseless. Yet the majority complied with the
experimental commands. This outcome was
surprising from two perspectives: first, from
the standpoint of predictions made in the
questionnaire described earlier. (Here, however, it is possible that the remoteness of
the respondents from the actual situation, and
the difficulty of conveying to them the con-
OBEDIENCE
crete details of the experiment, could account
for the serious underestimation of obedience.)
But the results were also unexpected to
persons who observed the experiment in
progress, through one-way mirrors. Observers
often uttered expressions of disbelief upon
seeing a subject administer more powerful
shocks to the victim. These persons had a
full acquaintance with the details of the
situation, and yet systematically
mated the amount of obedience that subjects
would disglay.
Thr Mrnnd unanticipated effect was the
extraordinary tension generated by the procedures. One might suppose that a subject
would simply break off or continue as his
conscience dictated. Yet, this is very far from
what happened. There were striking reactions of tension and emotional strain. One
observer related:
I observed a mature and initially poised businessman enter the laboratory smiling and confident.
Within 20 minutes he was reduced to a twitching,
stuttering wreck, who was rapidly approaching a
point of nervous collapse. He constantly pulled on
his earlobe, and twisted his hands. At one point
he pushed his fist into his forehead and muttered:
“Oh God, let’s stop it.” And yet he continued to
respond to every word of the experimenter, and
obeyed to the end.
Any understanding of the phenomenon of
obedience must rest on an analysis of the
particular conditions in which it occurs. The
following features of the experiment go some
distance in explaining the high amount of
obedience observed in the situation.
1. The experiment is sponsored by and
takes place on the grounds of an institution
of unimpeachable reputation, Yale University. It may be reasonably presumed that
the personnel are competent and reputable.
The importance of this background authority
is now being studied by conducting a series
of experiments outside of New Haven, and
without any visible ties to the university.
2. The experiment is, on the face of it,
designed to attain a worthy purpose—advancement of knowledge about learning and
memory. Obedience occurs not as an end in
itself, but as an instrumental element in a
situation that the subject construes as significant, and meaningful. He may not be
able to see its full significance, but he may
properly assume that the experimenter does.
377
3. The subject perceives that the victim
has voluntarily submitted to the authority
system of the experimenter. He is not (at
first) an unwilling captive impressed for involuntary service. He has taken the trouble
to come to the laboratory presumably to aid
the experimental research. That he later
becomes an involuntary subject does not alter
the fact that, initially, he consented to participate without qualification. Thus he has
in some dgeree incurred an obligation toward
the experimenter.
4. The subject, too, has entered the experiment voluntarily, and perceives himself under
obligation to aid the experimenter. He has
made a commitment, and to disrupt the
experiment is a repudiation of this initial
promise of aid.
5. Certain features of the procedure
strengthen the subject’s sense of obligation
to the experimenter, For one, he has been
paid for coming to the laboratory. In part
this is canceled out by the experimenter’s
statement that:
Of course, as in all experiments, the money is yours
simply for coming to the laboratory. From this
point on, no matter what happens, the money is
yours.4
6. From the subject’s standpoint, the fact
that he is the teacher and the other man
the learner is purely a chance consequence
(it is determined by drawing lots) and he,
the subject, ran the same risk as the other
man in being assigned the role of learner.
Since the assignment of positions in the
experiment was achieved by fair means, the
learner is deprived of any basis of complaint
on this count. (A similar situation obtains
in Army units, in which—in the absence of
volunteers—a particularly dangerous mission
may be assigned by drawing lots, and the
unlucky soldier is expected to bear his misfortune with sportsmanship.)
7. There is, at best, ambiguity with regard
to the prerogatives of a psychologist and the
corresponding rights of his subject. There is
a vagueness of expectation concerning what a
psychologist may require of his subject, and
when he is overstepping acceptable limits.
4
Forty-three subjects, undergraduates at Yale
University, were run in the experiment without payment. The results are very similar to those obtained
with paid subjects.
378
STANLEY MILGRAM
Moreover, the experiment occurs in a closed
setting, and thus provides no opportunity
for the subject to remove these ambiguities
by discussion with others. There are few
standards that seem directly applicable
to the situation, which is a novel one for
most subjects.
8. The subjects are assured that the shocks
administered to the subject are “painful but
not dangerous.” Thus they assume that the
discomfort caused the victim is momentary,
while the scientific gains resulting from the
experiment are enduring,
9. Through Shock Level 20 the victim
continues to provide answers on the signal
box. The subject may construe this as a
sign that the victim is still willing to “play
the game.” It is only after Shock Level 20
that the victim repudiates the rules completely, refusing to answer further.
These features help to explain the high
amount of obedience obtained in this
experiment. Many of the arguments raised
need not remain matters of speculation, but
can be reduced to testable propostions
to be confirmed or disproved by further
experiments.”
The following features of the experiment
concern the nature of the conflict which the
subject faces.
10. The subject is placed in a position in
which he must respond to the competing
demands of two persons: the experimenter
and the victim. The conflict must be
resolved by meeting the demands of one
or the other; satisfaction of the victim and
the experimenter are mutually exclusive.
Moreover, the resolution must take the form
of a highly visible action, that of continuing to shock the victim or breaking off the
experiment. Thus the subject is forced into
a public conflict that does not permit any
completely satisfactory solution.
11. While the demands of the experimenter
carry the weight of scientific authority, the
demands of the victim spring from his personal experience of pain and suffering. The
two claims need not be regarded as equally
pressing and legitimate. The experimenter
seeks an abstract scientific datum; the victim
5
A series of recently completed experiments
employing the obedience paradigm is reported in
Milgram (1964).
cries out for relief from physical suffering
caused by the subject’s actions.
12. The experiment gives the subject
little time for reflection. The conflict comes
on rapidly. It is only minutes after the subject has been seated before the shock generator that the victim begins his protests.
Moreover, the subject perceives that he has
gone through but two-thirds of the shock
levels at the time the subject’s first protests
are heard. Thus he understands that the
conflict will have a persistent aspect to it,
and may well become more intense as increasingly more powerful shocks are required.
The rapidity with which the conflict descends
on the subject, and his realization that it is
predictably recurrent may well be sources of
tension to him.
13. At a more general level, the conflict
stems from the opposition of two deeply
ingrained behavior dispositions: first, the disposition not to harm other people, and second, the tendency to obey those whom we
perceive to be legitimate authorities.
REFERENCES
ADORNO, T., FRENKEL-BRUNSWIK, ELSE, LEVINSON,
D. J., & SANTORD, R. N. The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper, 1950.
ARENDT, H. What was authority? In C. J. Friedrich
(Ed.), Authority. Cambridge: Harvard Univer.
Press, 1958. Pp. 81-112.
BINET, A. La suggestibility. Paris: Schleicher, 1900.
Buss, A. H. The psychology of aggression. New
York: Wiley, 1961.
CARTWRIGHT, S. (Ed.) Studies in social power. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Institute for Social
Research, 1959.
CHARCOT, J. M. Oeuvres completes. Paris: Bureaux
du Progres Medical, 1881.
FRANK, J. D. Experimental studies of personal
pressure and resistance. /. gen. Psychol, 1944,
30, 23-64.
FRIEDRICH, C. J. (Ed.) Authority. Cambridge:
Harvard Univer. Press, 19S8.
MILGRAM, S. Dynamics of obedience. Washington:
National Science Foundation, 25 January 1961.
(Mimeo)
MILGRAM, S. Some conditions of obedience and
disobedience to authority. Hum. Relat., 1964, in
press.
ROKEACH, M. Authority, authoritarianism, and conformity. In I. A. Berg & B. M. Bass (Eds.),
Conformity and deviation. New York: Harper,
1961. Pp. 230-257.
SNOW, C. P. Either-or. Progressive, 1961 (Feb.),
24.
WEBER, M. The theory of social and economic
organization. Oxford: Oxford Univer. Press, 1947.
(Received July 27, 1962)
Chapter 2
Reason & Emotion
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to
understand the roles of reason and emotion in
critical thinking.
How Do Reason and Emotion Work
Together in an Activity Such as Skydiving?
2
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason and Emotion Play Important
Roles in Critical Thinking
3
Reason is the process of supporting a claim or
conclusion based on evidence. It involves both the
disciplined use of intelligence and the application of
rules for problem solving.
 In logic, reasoning is presented in a structured form
supported by premises. However, everyday uses of
reason are broader and require creative thought and
emotional discernment.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reasoning about Problems in a
Familiar Context
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4
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Contains a Number of
Important Components and Strategies
5
These components include the ability to engage in
abstract thinking and behavioral modification.
 Reason also involves the embrace of different cognitive
strategies, such as deduction, generalization, and
imagination. It is also important in spatial-temporal
problem solving in fields, such as mathematics,
engineering, and architecture.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Great Chain of Being
6
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Has Traditionally Been Linked
with Males in Western Thought
7
Beginning with Aristotle, Western thought has generally
linked men to reason and women to the realm of nature.
 In order to be effective critical thinkers, we must be
willing to use reason to examine these assumptions
regarding gender and age.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Can Operate at Both the
Conscious and Unconscious Levels
8
Traditionally seen as a conscious activity, recent
cognitive research suggests much of reasoning is in fact
unconscious and automatic.
 Studies of brain function indicate that dreams involve
cerebral activity related to reason and problem solving.
 Many important knowledge breakthroughs, such as the
creation of the periodic table by Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleyev, occurred through dream-inspired guidance.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Temple Grandin
9
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Your Brain on Video Games
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10
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Is an Essential Component of
Critical Thinking
11

Reason helps us analyze beliefs and evidence, to make
good life choice decisions, to cope with adversity, and to
resolve problems. In critical thinking, reason does not
operate alone but works together with other faculties,
such as emotion.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Role of Emotion in Critical
Thinking (1)
12
Emotion is a “state of consciousness in which joy,
sorrow, fear, etc., is experienced, as distinguished from
cognitive and volitional consciousness.”
 In Western culture, emotion has been traditionally
viewed as the opposite of reason. In contrast, other
cultures have emphasized the importance of positive
emotions in the development of critical thinking skills.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Can You Identify Which Emotions Are
Being Shown Here?
13
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Education/Lars A. Niki,
photographer
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Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Hot or Not? (1)
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14
Do you think emotion or reason
plays a more pivotal role in critical
thinking?
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Role of Emotion in Critical
Thinking (2)
15

As critical thinkers, we need to be aware of the dangers
of emotions, such as anger and fear, as barriers to
critical thought and the benefits of using emotions, such
as empathy and compassion, to enhance our critical
thinking abilities.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rosa Parks
16
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Importance of Emotional
Intelligence
17
Emotional intelligence – The ability to perceive,
appraise, express, and regulate emotion is positively
related to abstract reasoning ability.
 Emotions such as empathy, moral indignation, love,
happiness, and even guilt can have a positive effect on
our reasoning by influencing us to make better
decisions.
 An empathetic person is more flexible and open to other
perspectives. This openness motivates critical analysis
of problems and situations and helps formulate
appropriate action plans and responses.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Emotions Can Also Work against
Critical Thinking
18
Although emotions can motivate better decision-making,
they can also hinder it. Examples of the negative role
emotions can play include the presence of fear and
anger in action plans.
 Additionally, we are vulnerable to emotional appeals,
such as those in advertising and political campaigns.
These appeals, often devoid of evidence and good
reasoning, can distract us from more important issues or
encourage regrettable actions.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Integrating Reason and Emotion
19
Reason and emotion provide a double-pronged tool for
critical thinking.
 Emotion alerts us to problems and other people’s
perspectives. Emotion also motivates action and
problem resolution.
 Using our emotions in conjunction with reason allows us
to make better-informed decisions.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Mozart Effect
20
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Artificial Intelligence (AI), Reasoning,
and Emotion
21
Artificial intelligence is defined as “the study of
computations that make it possible to perceive, reason,
and act.” Its goals include the enhancement of human
reasoning, the creation of intelligent machines, and the
development of sociable, intelligent machines that can
cooperate with people.
 Given recent advances in these endeavors, as critical
thinkers we need to move beyond questioning whether
AI is capable of reasoning and emotion and not hold AI
to higher standards of proof than we apply to humanity.
AI possesses enormous potential to enhance our critical
thinking Copyright
abilities.
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
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
“Only a Human Can…”
22
© UPMC
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Turing Test
23
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Hot or Not? (2)
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24
Do some computers have the
ability for rational thought?
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
25

Discuss the analogy between denying rationality in
women and Africans and denying rationality in intelligent
machines. Is this a good analogy? Support your answer.
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
26

Recognizing beings with AI as conscious, rational beings
with moral value would have far-ranging social
implications. In small groups, discuss some of these
implications and how it would affect your life both as a
college student and after you graduate.
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
27


Go onto the Internet and have a conversation with a
chatbot, such as www.jabberwacky.com. Discuss in
class whether you were able to tell from the responses
of the chatbot whether you were talking to a computer or
a human.
https://www.cleverbot.com/
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Mother Teresa
© Tim Graham/Getty Images
28
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Faith and Reason
29
Faith involves not only belief in God, but also an act of
trust in and obedience to God. Traditionally, faith and
reason have been seen as uneasy co-inhabitants of the
human mind. Whatever one’s personal beliefs, it is
important for us as critical thinkers to connect faith with
reason, in order to balance belief and doubt.
 Integrating reason into faith allows us to evaluate the
competing claims of faith and revelation and to question
faith-based claims that are inconsistent with evidence or
reason.

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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Three Approaches to Faith and
Reason
30



Fideism argues that faith transcends reason and that
the divine is revealed through faith and revelation, not
through reason or empirical evidence.
Rationalism argues that religious beliefs should be
consistent with reason and evidence.
Critical rationalism argues that divine knowledge can
derive from both faith and reason, but that both sources
should be compatible with one another.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Abraham and His Son Isaac
© Time Life Pictures/Mansell/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
31
Abraham making preparations to sacrifice his son
Isaac at God’s command
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Albert Schweitzer
32
© PhotoQuest/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Conclusions
33
As the previous slides have shown, effective critical
thinking requires exercise of both reason and emotion in
order to be most effective.
Also, reason and faith are compatible. Indeed, applying
reason to faith is important for it protects us from faithbased knowledge and arguments not supported by
evidence.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Perspectives on Reason and Proofs for
the Existence of God
34
© Richard I’Anson/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 3
Language & Communication
The aim of this tutorial is to help you to
understand the relationships among language,
communication, and critical thinking.
A Car-Bombing Site
2
© Ibrahim Alaguri/AP Images
How do poor communication skills contribute to distrust
and even acts of terrorism?
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Good Communication Skills Are an
Essential Part of Critical Thinking
3

Communication skills enable effective critical thinking
and decision-making.

Effective communication involves several related skills:
 Keeping avenues of communication open
 Communicating with others clearly and accurately
 Taking care with word use
 Developing awareness of your own and others’ language use
 People’s communication styles
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Language Is the Key
4

Language is a system of communication with arbitrary
symbols, whether spoken, written, or nonverbal.

By creating a shared reality among people, language is
the primary means of transmitting cultural concepts and
traditions.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Languages of the World
5
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Not All Language Is Verbal
6
© Elva Dorn/Alamy
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Functions of Language
7
Language has one basic function: the communication
of information about ourselves and the world.
 Other functions of language include:

 Directive language – Used to direct or influence actions
 Expressive language – Communicates feelings and attitudes
 Emotive words – Used to generate emotive impact
 Ceremonial language – Used in prescribed formal
circumstances

Most languages serve multiple functions.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Nonverbal Language
8

Nonverbal cues, such as body language and vocal tone,
often help us interpret verbal communication.

Nonverbal cues are commonly used to reinforce verbal
communication.

Images, such as artwork or photographs, are also
means of communicating ideas and feelings.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Animal Language
9
© Jocelyn Winwood/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Language Enables Effective Critical
Thinking
10
Using language effectively to convey information,
provide direction, and express feelings is essential for
individual and collaborative critical thinking.
 It is important to understand that while language greatly
enriches our communication of ideas and feelings, it
also can contribute to ambiguity and misunderstanding.
 Intellectual curiosity and awareness of other people’s
language use are two critical thinking skills that can
make us less susceptible to misunderstandings and
manipulation.

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Sally Ride
11
NASA
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Lance Armstrong and Oprah Winfrey:
Nonverbal Communication and Withholding
Information
12
© Photo by George Burns/Oprah Winfrey Network/Getty Images
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Language Is a Cultural Construct
13

Good critical thinkers realize that word choices and
nonverbal cues significantly influence how verbal
communication is interpreted—or misinterpreted.

The following approaches greatly assist effective
communication:
 Communicate clearly, and be conscious of language’s complexity
and flexibility.
 Be willing to ask people for clarification if you are uncertain of
their meaning.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
14

Reading faces

Look back at a time when you misinterpreted a gesture
or body language of someone from a different culture.
How did this affect your ability to communicate
effectively with that person? Discuss ways in which
improving your understanding of cross-cultural behavior
can help you to be a better communicator and critical
thinker.
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
TedEd
15

In what ways is your communication style influenced by
your sex and cultural background? Describe a time
where you altered your communication style because
you were talking to a person of another gender or racial
or ethnic background. Evaluate whether the adjustments
enhanced or impeded communication.
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz argues that the politically correct
movement, while claiming to promote greater diversity, has in fact limited diversity
of expression. He writes:
16
As a teacher, I can feel a palpable reluctance on the part of many students—
particularly those with views in neither extreme and those who are anxious
for peer acceptance—to experiment with unorthodox ideas, to make playful
comments on serious subjects, to challenge politically correct views and to
disagree with minority, feminist or gay perspectives.
I feel this problem quite personally, since I happen to agree . . . with most
“politically correct” positions. But I am appalled at the intolerance of many
who share my substantive views. And I worry about the impact of politically
correct intolerance on the generation of leaders we are currently educating.
Do you agree with Dershowitz? What are some examples of “politically incorrect”
words or phrases on your campus? Do you find that you have to be careful to think
about what you say and to avoid politically incorrect terms? Discuss whether
having to do so facilitated or inhibited critical thinking.
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Microaggressions
17


Microaggressions are the everyday verbal, nonverbal,
and environmental slights, snubs, or insults, whether
intentional or unintentional, which communicate hostile,
derogatory, or negative messages to target persons
based solely upon their marginalized group
membership.
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial
microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doiorg.proxy.lib.csus.edu/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271

Video

Pro/Con??
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Free Speech on Campus
18

Find campus policy

https://www.csus.edu/umanual/student/stu-0125.htm

Pros/Cons
© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Definitions
19

Like all languages, the English language is in constant
flux. This dynamic state means that word meanings
change constantly as words move in and out of use.

In order to communicate accurately and clearly, it is
important to understand the difference between the
denotative and connotative meanings of words.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Denotative and Connotative Meanings
20
All words have both denotative and connotative
meanings.
 The denotative meaning of a word or phrase expresses
the properties of the object, being, or event the word is
symbolizing—its dictionary definition.
 The connotative meaning of a word or phrase includes
thoughts and personal feelings based on past
experiences and associations. This means a word’s
connotative meaning may be in a dictionary listing but
also could be shared only among small groups.
Stereotypes are a good example.

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
A Dog
21
© G.K. & Vikki Hart/Getty Images
The denotative meaning of the word dog is a
domesticated member of the family Canis Familiaris
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Types of Word Definitions
22

There are four major types of word definitions:
 Stipulative definitions are definitions given to new words
or terms or are new definitions of existing words.
 Lexical definitions are commonly used dictionary
definitions for words or terms.
 Precising definitions are used to reduce vagueness.
They are split into two subsets: (a) Theoretical definitions
are used to provide theory, and (b) Operational
definitions are used to provide standards in data
collection.
 Persuasive definitions are used to influence or persuade
others.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Lexical Definitions of a Word May Vary
from Country to Country
23
© Corbis
Homely, for example means “plain or unattractive” in the
United States, but “comfortable and cozy” in Canada
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Body Mass Index (BMI) – An Example
of Operational Definition
24
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Evaluating Definitions
25

Five criteria are useful in evaluating word definitions:
 Good definitions are neither too broad nor too narrow.
 Good definitions state the essential attributes of the term
being defined.
 Good definitions are not circular.
 Good definitions avoid obscure and figurative language.
 Good definitions avoid emotive language.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
A Penguin
26
© Ingram Publishing/Alamy
The definition of penguin as “a bird that lives in
Antarctica” is both too broad and too narrow.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Communication Styles (1)
27

Good critical thinkers are aware that there are
differences in individual as well as group communication
styles.

Understanding our styles and those of others facilitates
good communication in relationships and critical thinking
skills.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Communication Styles (2)
28

There are four basic types of communication style:
 Assertive communicators clearly and respectfully
communicate their own needs and strive for mutually
satisfactory solutions.
 Aggressive communicators attempt to get their own way by
controlling other people through manipulation and control
tactics.
 Passive communicators avoid confrontation and are
compliant, often putting their needs after those of others.
 Passive-aggressive communicators avoid direct
confrontation but use devious means to get their own way.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Hillary Clinton
29
© McGraw-Hill Education/Jill Braaten, photographer
Hillary Clinton’s success in politics is due in
part to her assertive communication style.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Communication Styles: Other Factors
30

Other factors may influence communication styles.
These factors include, but are not limited to




Gender
Ethnicity
Culture
Dress
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
International Diplomacy and Nonverbal
Communication
31
© Jim Watson/AFP/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
A Mayan Calendar
32
© jvphoto/Alamy
Misinterpretation of the symbols on the Mayan Calendar
led some to believe that the world was going to end.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Language as Manipulation
33

Language can be used to deceive as well as to inform.

Typically, manipulation occurs through the use of three
devices: emotive language, rhetorical devices, and/or
deliberate deception.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Emotive Language
34

Emotive language:
 Emotive language is used to elicit a certain emotional
impact, either positive or negative. When a factual issue
arises, emotive language can slant the truth and obscure
our critical thinking abilities.
 It is particularly dangerous when used to cover weak
arguments for marketing purposes or when it masquerades
as news in the media.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rhetorical devices
35

Rhetorical devices, like emotive language, use
psychological persuasion rather than reason to
persuade others.

Common rhetorical devices include
 Euphemisms
 Dysphemisms
 Sarcasm
 Hyperbole
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Politicians Are Notorious for Their
Manipulative Use of Language
36
© Scott Olson/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Euphemisms and Dysphemisms
37

Euphemisms replace negative terms with neutral or
positive terms in order to conceal or sugar-coat the truth.

Dysphemisms, in contrast to euphemisms, use
negative terms to produce negative effects. They are
often used to win over one group while at the same time
alienating others.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Sarcasm and Hyperbole
38

Sarcasm involves the use of ridicule, insults, taunting,
and/or caustic irony. Like other rhetorical devices, it is
used to deflect critical analysis and encourage feelings
of disapproval toward the subject.

Hyperbole is a device that uses exaggeration or
overstatement to distort the facts.

As good critical thinkers, we must be able to recognize
and resist these rhetorical devices.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four
39
© Studio 101/Alamy
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Facial Expressions Can Disclose a
Wealth of Information
40
© Veer
© Image Source/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Deception and Lying
41

Although rhetorical devices may involve deception, the
deception is not always deliberate.

A lie, on the other hand, is a deliberate attempt to
mislead without prior consent.

Lies can
 Damage trust
 Derail honest communication
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Hot or Not? (2)
Is lying for the greater good ever
justified?

© skodonnell/iStock/Getty Images
42
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Detecting Lies
43
As good critical thinkers, we must be able to detect,
recognize, and challenge lies.
 Always check information
 Be aware of nonverbal cues of lying, such as less
physical movement and blinking, changes in voice tone
and pitch, errors in storytelling, etc.

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Conclusions
44
Language is a form of symbolic communication that allows
us to organize, express, and critically analyze our
experiences. It shapes our understanding of reality and of
ourselves. Good communication skills are vital in critical
thinking.
As good critical thinkers, we need to clearly define terms,
be mindful of our communication styles and those of
others, and be aware of the manipulative and deceptive
powers of language.
Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or
distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Perspectives on Free-Speech Zones
on College Campuses
© Suzanne Kreiter/The Boston Globe via Getty Images
45
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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