PSYC 4541 UCB Psychology the Science of Happiness Reading Paper

Answer the prompts using the readings provided for each prompt. Label each response with the reading title and prompt to make it clear.

Prompts

Lyubomirsky CH 9: Physical Activity (pp. 245-250) (BOOK)/ The How of Happiness

Lyubomirsky & Layous (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being?

Dunn, Gilbert, & Wilson (2011). If money doesn’t make you happy, then you probably aren’t spending it right.

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Journal of
CONSUMER
PSYCHOLOGY
Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115 – 125
Research Dialogue
If money doesn’t make you happy, then you probably aren’t
spending it right
Elizabeth W. Dunn a,⁎, Daniel T. Gilbert b,1 , Timothy D. Wilson c,2
a
University of British Columbia, Douglas Kenny Building, Room 2013, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
b
Department of Psychology, Harvard University, William James Hall, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
c
Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400400, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4400, USA
Received 16 July 2010
Available online 21 March 2011
Abstract
The relationship between money and happiness is surprisingly weak, which may stem in part from the way people spend it. Drawing on
empirical research, we propose eight principles designed to help consumers get more happiness for their money. Specifically, we suggest that
consumers should (1) buy more experiences and fewer material goods; (2) use their money to benefit others rather than themselves; (3) buy many
small pleasures rather than fewer large ones; (4) eschew extended warranties and other forms of overpriced insurance; (5) delay consumption;
(6) consider how peripheral features of their purchases may affect their day-to-day lives; (7) beware of comparison shopping; and (8) pay close
attention to the happiness of others.
© 2011 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Scientists have studied the relationship between money and
happiness for decades and their conclusion is clear: Money buys
happiness, but it buys less than most people think (Aknin,
Norton, & Dunn, 2009; Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002; Frey &
Stutzer, 2000). The correlation between income and happiness
is positive but modest, and this fact should puzzle us more than
it does. After all, money allows people to do what they please,
so shouldn’t they be pleased when they spend it? Why don’t a
whole lot more money make us a whole lot more happy? One
answer to this question is that the things that bring happiness
simply aren’t for sale. This sentiment is lovely, popular, and
almost certainly wrong. Money allows people to live longer and
healthier lives, to buffer themselves against worry and harm, to
have leisure time to spend with friends and family, and to
control the nature of their daily activities—all of which are
sources of happiness (Smith, Langa, Kabeto, & Ubel, 2005).
Wealthy people don’t just have better toys; they have better
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: edunn@psych.ubc.ca (E.W. Dunn).
1
Fax: +1 617 495 3892.
2
Fax: +1 434 982 4766.
nutrition and better medical care, more free time and more
meaningful labor—more of just about every ingredient in the
recipe for a happy life. And yet, they aren’t that much happier
than those who have less. If money can buy happiness, then why
doesn’t it?
Because people don’t spend it right. Most people don’t know
the basic scientific facts about happiness—about what brings it
and what sustains it—and so they don’t know how to use their
money to acquire it. It is not surprising when wealthy people
who know nothing about wine end up with cellars that aren’t
that much better stocked than their neighbors’, and it should not
be surprising when wealthy people who know nothing about
happiness end up with lives that aren’t that much happier than
anyone else’s. Money is an opportunity for happiness, but it is
an opportunity that people routinely squander because the
things they think will make them happy often don’t.
When people make predictions about the hedonic consequences of future events they are said to be making affective
forecasts, and a sizeable literature shows that these forecasts are
often wrong (for reviews see Gilbert & Wilson, 2007, 2009;
Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). Errors in affective forecasting can be
traced to two basic sources. First, people’s mental simulations
of future events are almost always imperfect. For example,
1057-7408/$ – see front matter © 2011 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
people don’t anticipate the ease with which they will adapt
to positive and negative events, they don’t fully understand
the factors that speed or slow that adaptation, and they are
insufficiently sensitive to the fact that mental simulations
lack important details. Second, context exerts strong effects on
affective forecasts and on affective experiences, but people
often fail to realize that these two contexts are not the same; that
is, the context in which they are making their forecasts is not the
context in which they will be having their experience. These
two sources of error cause people to mispredict what will
make them happy, how happy it will make them, and how
long that happiness will last.
In this article, we will use insights gleaned from the affective
forecasting literature to explain why people often spend money
in ways that fail to maximize their happiness, and we will offer
eight principles that are meant to remedy that.
Principle 1: Buy experiences instead of things
“Go out and buy yourself something nice.” That’s the
consoling advice we often give to friends who have just gotten
bad news from their employer, their doctor, or their soon-to-beex spouse. Although the advice is well-meant, research suggests
that people are often happier when they spend their money on
experiences rather than things.
Van Boven and Gilovich (2003) defined experiential purchases as those “made with the primary intention of acquiring
a life experience: an event or series of events that one lives
through,” while defining material purchases as those “made
with the primary intention of acquiring a material good:
a tangible object that is kept in one’s possession” (p. 1194).
Although there is a “fuzzy boundary” between these two types
of purchases, with many purchases (e.g., a new car) falling
somewhere in the hazy middle, consumers are consistently able
to describe past purchases that clearly fit these definitions,
both in their own minds and the minds of coders trained in
this distinction (Carter & Gilovich, 2010, p. 156). In one study,
these definitions were presented to a nationwide sample of over
a thousand Americans, who were asked to think of a material
and an experiential purchase they had made with the intention
of increasing their own happiness. Asked which of the two
purchases made them happier, fully 57% of respondents
reported that they had derived greater happiness from their
experiential purchase, while only 34% reported greater
happiness from their material purchase. Similar results emerged
using a between-subjects design in which participants were
randomly assigned to reflect on either a material or experiential
purchase they had made; individuals experienced elevated
mood when contemplating a past experiential purchase (relative
to those contemplating a past material purchase), suggesting
that experiential purchases produce more lasting hedonic
benefits.
There is no doubt that some experiences are better than
others: people report being happier when they are making love
or listening to music, for example, than when they are working
or commuting. But when it comes to happiness, the nature of the
activity in which people are engaged seems to matter less than
the fact that they are engaged in it (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
Fig. 1 shows the results of a large-scale experience-sampling
study in which people reported their current happiness, their
current activity, and the current focus of their thoughts
(Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010). The upper half of the figure
shows the average amount of happiness that people reported
while doing their daily activities, and although the difference
between the most and least pleasant activities is real and
significant, it is also surprisingly small. In contrast, the bottom
half of Fig. 1 shows the average amount of happiness that
people reported when their minds were focused on their current
activity, and also when their minds were wandering to pleasant,
neutral, or unpleasant topics. As the figure shows, people were
maximally happy when they were thinking about what they
were doing, and time-lag analyses revealed that mindwandering was a cause, and not merely an effect, of diminished
happiness. A wandering mind is an unhappy mind, and one of
the benefits of experiences is that they keep us focused on the
here and now.
Experiences are good; but why are they better than things?
One reason is that we adapt to things so quickly. After devoting
days to selecting the perfect hardwood floor to install in a new
Fig. 1. From Killingsworth & Gilbert (2010). Upper half shows mean centered
happiness reported by people who were doing each activity. Bottom half shows
mean centered happiness reported by people whose minds were wandering to
unpleasant topics, or neutral topics, pleasant topics, or whose minds where not
mind wandering. Bubble size indicates the number of reports.
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
116
condo, homebuyers find their once beloved Brazilian cherry
floors quickly become nothing more than the unnoticed ground
beneath their feet. In contrast, their memory of seeing a baby
cheetah at dawn on an African safari continues to provide
delight. Testing this idea in an experimental context, Nicolao,
Irwin, and Goodman (2009) randomly assigned participants
to spend several dollars on either a material or experiential
purchase, tracking participants’ happiness with their purchase
over a 2 week period. Over time, participants exhibited slower
adaptation to experiential purchases than to material purchases.3
One reason why this happens is that people adapt most quickly
to that which doesn’t change. Whereas cherry floorboards
generally have the same size, shape, and color on the last day
of the year as they did on the first, each session of a year-long
cooking class is different from the one before.
Another reason why people seem to get more happiness
from experiences than things is that they anticipate and remember
the former more often than the latter. Surveying a sample of
Cornell students, Van Boven and Gilovich (2003) found that 83%
reported “mentally revisiting” their experiential purchases more
frequently than their material purchases (p. 1199). Things bring us
happiness when we use them, but not so much when we merely
think about them. Experiences bring happiness in both cases—
and some (e.g., climbing a mountain or making love to a new
partner) may even be better contemplated than consummated
(Loewenstein, 1999). We are more likely to mentally revisit our
experiences than our things in part because our experiences
are more centrally connected to our identities. In a survey of 76
adults, Van Boven and Gilovich (2003) found that the vast
majority of adults viewed their experiential purchases as more
self-defining than their material purchases. What’s more, because
experiences often seem as unique as the people who are having
them, it can be difficult to compare the butt-numbing bicycle ride
we decided to take through the Canadian Arctic to the sunny
Sonoma wine tour we could have taken instead—thereby saving
us from troubling ruminations about the road less travelled (Carter
& Gilovich, 2010). As such, it is possible to reduce our proclivity
for making these kinds of distressing comparisons simply by
thinking of our purchases in experiential terms; if we view a new
car not as something we have, but as something that expands what
we can do, then discovering that a shinier, faster, less expensive
model has just come out may be a little less frustrating (Carter &
Gilovich, 2010). A final reason why experiences make us happier
than things is that experiences are more likely to be shared with
other people, and other people—as we are now about to see—are
our greatest source of happiness.
Principle 2: Help others instead of yourself
Human beings are the most social animal on our planet. Only
three other animals (termites, eusocial insects, and naked mole
3
Of course, if people adapt more slowly to experiential than material
purchases, then they may also experience more lasting distress from a terrible
experiential (versus material purchase). Indeed, Nicolao et al. (2009) found
suggestive evidence that experience purchases that turn out badly may produce
somewhat more lasting unhappiness than material purchases that turn out badly.
117
rats) construct social networks as complex as ours, and we are
the only one whose complex social networks include unrelated
individuals. Many scientists believe that this “hypersociality”
is what caused our brains to triple in size in just 2 million years
(Dunbar & Shultz, 2007). Given how deeply and profoundly
social we are, it isn’t any wonder that the quality of our social
relationships is a strong determinant of our happiness.
Because of this, almost anything we do to improve our connections with others tends to improve our happiness as well—
and that includes spending money. Dunn, Aknin, and Norton
(2008) asked a nationally representative sample of Americans
to rate their happiness and to report how much money they
spent in a typical month on (1) bills and expenses, (2) gifts for
themselves, (3) gifts for others, and (4) donations to charity. The
first two categories were summed to create a personal spending
composite, and the latter two categories were summed to create
a prosocial spending composite. Although personal spending
was unrelated to happiness, people who devoted more money
to prosocial spending were happier, even after controlling for
their income. An experiment revealed a similar pattern of results
(Dunn, Aknin, & Norton, 2008). Researchers approached
individuals on the University of British Columbia (UBC)
campus, handed them a $5 or $20 bill, and then randomly
assigned them to spend the money on themselves or on others
by the end of the day. When participants were contacted
that evening, individuals who had been assigned to spend
their windfall on others were happier than those who had been
assigned to spend the money on themselves. The benefits
of prosocial spending appear to be cross-cultural. Over 600
students attending universities in Canada and in the East
African nation of Uganda were randomly assigned to reflect on
a time they had spent money on themselves or on others (Aknin
et al., 2010). Participants felt significantly happier when they
reflected on a time they had spent money on others, and this
effect emerged consistently across these vastly different cultural
contexts—even though the specific ways in which participants
spent their money varied dramatically between cultures.4 The
emotional rewards of prosocial spending are also detectable
at the neural level. Participants in an MRI were given the
opportunity to donate money to a local food bank. Choosing
to give money away—or even being forced to do so—led to
activation in brain areas typically associated with receiving
rewards (Harbaugh, Mayr, & Burghart, 2007).
Why does prosocial spending produce such strong and
consistent benefits for well-being? Diener and Seligman (2002)
argue that strong social relationships are universally critical for
happiness, and prosocial spending has a surprisingly powerful
impact on social relationships. Research shows that receiving a gift
from a romantic partner has a significant impact on college
students’ feelings about the likelihood that the relationship
will continue over the long-term and lead to marriage (Dunn,
Huntsinger, Lun, & Sinclair, 2008). Spending money on a friend or
4
Providing evidence that the benefits of prosocial spending emerge
regardless of whether purchases are material or experiential, the effect of
prosocial spending remained significant even when controlling for the extent to
which the purchase was material versus experiential.
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
romantic partner also provides an opportunity for positive selfpresentation, which has been shown to produce benefits for mood
(Dunn, Biesanz, Human, & Finn, 2007). Giving to charity may
facilitate such positive self-presentation as well, and may even
facilitate the development of social relationships, considering that
most charitable donations are made by individuals who are directly
connected to the beneficiaries (e.g., churches, arts organizations;
Schervish & Szanto, 2006).
Although the benefits of prosocial spending are robust across
cultures and methodologies, they are invisible to many people.
Surveying UBC students, Dunn et al. (2008) found that a
significant majority made an affective forecasting error: they
thought that spending money on themselves would make them
happier than spending on others. Indeed, simply thinking about
money has been shown to undermine prosocial impulses,
making people less likely to donate to charity or help acquaintances (Vohs, Meade, & Goode, 2006). Although money can
and should promote happiness, the mere thought of money may
undermine its ability to do so.
Principle 3: Buy many small pleasures instead of few
big ones
Adaptation is a little bit like death: we fear it, fight it, and
sometimes forestall it, but in the end, we always lose. And like
death, there may be benefits to accepting its inevitability. If we
inevitably adapt to the greatest delights that money can buy,
than it may be better to indulge in a variety of frequent, small
pleasures—double lattes, uptown pedicures, and high threadcount socks— rather than pouring money into large purchases,
such as sports cars, dream vacations, and front-row concert
tickets. This is not to say that there’s anything wrong with large
purchases. But as long as money is limited by its failure to grow
on trees, we may be better off devoting our finite financial
resources to purchasing frequent doses of lovely things rather
than infrequent doses of lovelier things. Indeed, across many
different domains, happiness is more strongly associated with
the frequency than the intensity of people’s positive affective
experiences (Diener, Sandvik, & Pavot, 1991). For example, no
one finds it surprising that people who have sex are happier than
people who don’t (Blanchflower & Oswald, 2004), but some do
find it surprising that the optimal number of sexual partners to
have in a 12-month period is one. Why would people who
have one partner be happier than people who have many? One
reason is that multiple partners are occasionally thrilling, but
regular partners are regularly enjoyable. A bi-weekly ride on a
merry-go-round may be better than an annual ride on a roller
coaster.
One reason why small frequent pleasures beat infrequent
large ones is that we are less likely to adapt to the former. The
more easily people can understand and explain an event, the
quicker they adapt to it (Wilson & Gilbert, 2008), and thus
anything that makes a pleasurable event more difficult to
understand and explain will delay adaptation. These variables
include novelty (we’ve never experienced the event before),
surprise (we didn’t expect it to happen), uncertainty (we’re not
entirely sure what the event is), and variability (the event keeps
changing). Each of these variables makes an event harder to
understand and as a result we pay more attention to it and adapt
more slowly. And, small pleasures are more likely to satisfy
these conditions than are large ones. Having a beer after work
with friends, for example, is never exactly the same as it was
before; this week the bar had a new India Pale Ale from Oregon
on tap, and Sam brought along his new friend Kate who told a
funny story about dachshunds. If we buy an expensive dining
room table, on the other hand, it’s pretty much the same
table today as it was last week. Because frequent small pleasures
are different each time they occur, they forestall adaptation.
Another advantage of small pleasures is that they are less
susceptible to diminishing marginal utility, which refers to the
fact that each unit increase in the magnitude of a pleasure
increases the hedonic impact of that pleasure by a smaller
amount than did the previous unit increase. Eating a 12 oz cookie
is not twice as pleasurable as eating a 6 oz cookie because
the first X% of a cookie’s weight accounts for more than X%
of its hedonic impact. People can therefore offset diminishing
marginal utility by “breaking up” or “segregating” a pleasurable
experience such as cookie-eating into a series of briefer
experiences (Kahneman, 1999; Kahneman & Tversky, 1979;
Mellers, 2000; Thaler, 1999). Eating two 6 oz cookies on different days may be better than eating a 12 oz cookie at a single
sitting. Research shows that people have some understanding of
this principle, which is why they prefer to win a $25 lottery and
then later to win a $50 lottery than to win a single $75 lottery
(Thaler, 1985, 1999; Thaler & Johnson, 1990). The same is true
for non-monetary experiences such as eating chocolate, getting
good grades, and exchanging social pleasantries (Linville &
Fischer, 1991; Morewedge, Gilbert, Keysar, Berkovitz, &
Wilson, 2007).
But why does segregation work? One reason is that it introduces a temporal discontinuity between experiences and thus
ameliorates the effects of adaptation. Nelson and Meyvis (2008)
asked participants to sit in a chair equipped with a massage
cushion. Half the participants experienced a continuous 180 s
massage, while the others experienced a massage of 80 s,
followed by a 20 s break, followed by a another 80 s massage.
Compared to participants who experienced one longer massage,
those who experienced two briefer massages (interrupted by a
break) found the overall experience more pleasurable and were
willing to pay about twice as much to purchase the massage
cushion. Before the massage began, however, the majority of
participants made affective forecasting errors: they predicted
that they would prefer receiving one continuous massage rather
than two shorter massages with a break in the middle. This
study highlights the surprising speed with which adaptation can
occur; after just 80 s, participants had presumably acclimated to
the pleasure of the massage, which was renewed when it was
stopped and then begun again. Thus, by treating themselves to
frequent, fleeting pleasures (rather than more sporadic but
prolonged experiences), consumers can capitalize on the burst
of delight that accompanies the first minute of massage, the first
bite of chocolate cake, and the first sight of the sea.
The happiness provided by frequent small pleasures helps
make sense of the modest correlation between money and
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
118
happiness. In a study of Belgian adults, individuals who had a
strong capacity to savor the mundane joys of daily life were
happier than those who did not (Quoidbach, Dunn, Petrides, &
Mikolajczak, 2010). This capacity to savor, however, was
reduced among wealthy individuals. Indeed, the positive impact
of wealth on happiness was significantly undercut by the
negative impact of wealth on savoring. Quoidbach et al. (2010)
argue that wealth promises access to peak experiences, which in
turn undermine the ability to savor small pleasures (see also
Parducci, 1995). Indeed, when participants are exposed to
photographs of money (thereby priming the construct of wealth)
they spend significantly less time eating a piece of chocolate
and exhibit less pleasure while doing it. In short, not only are the
small pleasures of daily life an important source of happiness,
but unfettered access to peak experiences may actually be
counterproductive.
Principle 4: Buy less insurance
If the bad news is that we adapt to good things, the good
news is that we adapt to bad things as well. Research on how
well people cope with a wide variety of traumas and tragedies—
from heart attacks to terrorist attacks—suggests that people
are not the emotionally fragile creatures they often imagine
themselves to be (Bonanno, 2004; Ubel, 2006). Just as the
physical immune system wards off maladies, the “psychological
immune system” wards off malaise by marshalling the
remarkable human capacities of reconstrual and rationalization
(Gilbert, 2006). But research suggests that people don’t know
much about their own psychological immune systems (Gilbert,
Pinel, Wilson, Blumberg, & Wheatley, 1998), and as a result
they overestimate their vulnerability to negative affect.
Businesses often trade on that ignorance by offering various
forms of insurance against unhappiness, from extended
warranties to generous return policies. With price tags reaching
as high as 50% of a product’s original cost, extended warranties
sold by retailers and manufacturers provide huge benefits to
the seller and are widely acknowledged to be “bad bets” for
the buyer (Berner, 2004; Chen, Kalra, & Sun, 2009). Why
are consumers willing to pay so much for these overpriced
warranties? Owning something instantly makes it more
delightful (Kahneman, Knetsch, & Thaler, 1990; Morewedge,
Shu, Gilbert, & Wilson, 2009), and as such, a plasma TV that
has just become my plasma TV may seem worthy of protection.
The prospect of loss is highly aversive to people, who expect
the pain of losing $5 to exceed the pleasure of gaining $5
(Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). But research shows that this
expectation is wrong. Kermer et al. (2006) gave participants $5,
and then flipped a coin. Participants were told that if the coin
came up one way they would get an additional $5, and if it came
up the other way they would lose $3 of their initial endowment.
Although participants expected to be more emotionally affected
by the loss of $3 than by the gain of $5, they were not.
Participants who lost $3 out of their initial $5 endowment were
significantly less upset than they expected because they
instantly framed the event as a $2 gain. Research like this
suggests that buying expensive extended warranties to guard
119
against the loss of consumer goods may be unnecessary
emotional protection.
The psychological immune system also provides the key to
understanding a phrase uttered by embattled politicians, reality
show rejects, and Olympic athletes who just missed the podium:
“I have no regrets.” When former British Prime Minister Tony
Blair invoked this familiar refrain in reference to getting his
country involved in the divisive Iraq War, a heckler yelled,
“What, no regrets? Come on!” (The Independent, 2010). Like
the heckler, Blair himself might have found it hard to believe
years ago that he would not regret his actions, had he been able
to preview how the future would unfold. The ability to “spin”
events in a positive direction after they have occurred—thereby
dodging regret—is not limited to politicians. Recent research
demonstrates that ordinary people are remarkably adept at
reconstruing events in order to avoid self-blame and the regret
that accompanies it, a capacity that these same individuals may
fail to appreciate in prospect. When passengers on a train were
asked to estimate how much regret they would feel have felt if
they had missed the train by 5 minutes or 1 minute, they
estimated that they would have felt more regret in the latter case
than the former. And yet, passengers who had actually missed
their trains by 1 and 5 min reported remarkably little regret, and
equally little regret regardless of whether they had missed the
train by 5 min or by 1 (Gilbert, Morewedge, Risen, and Wilson,
2004). What explains this discrepancy? When passengers who
had made their trains were asked to imagine having missed them
by a minute, they imagined blaming themselves for the near
miss (e.g., “I would not have missed the train if only I’d woken
up earlier and gotten out of the house faster”). Passengers who
had actually missed their trains, however, tended to blame
anyone or anything but themselves (e.g., “I would have missed
the train if only all the gates were open instead of just one”).
Because people are highly skilled at dodging self-blame, they
experience less regret than they predict.
Consumers, of course, often buy with future regret in mind.
Although they may save a lot of money by purchasing goods
through websites such as eBay and Craigslist, they turn to
traditional retailers in part because they believe that these stores
are better equipped to remedy any unhappiness they may
experience after the purchase. Little do they know that their
brains have already come equipped with an unhappinessreducing mechanism that they can use for free. After purchasing
a Roomba vacuuming robot on Craigslist that turns out not to
pick up dirt, the psychological immune system enables us to see
what a fabulous dog toy we now own and to appreciate how
dirty floors help us “get back to nature.”
Unfortunately, this handy mental mechanism may actually
be short-circuited by generous return policies. Gilbert and Ebert
(2002) offered participants the choice between prints of
paintings by artists ranging from Van Gogh to El Greco.
After participants made their selection, half of them were
presented with the equivalent of a generous store return policy:
they were told, “If you change your mind about which poster
you want to take home before you leave today or even any time
in the next month, you can just let me know and we will
exchange it for you.” The remaining participants were informed
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
that no such exchange would be possible and that their choice
was final. Participants who knew they were stuck with the
poster they had chosen responded by inflating their appreciation
of it, seeing the poster in a more positive light than they had
initially. In contrast, participants who knew they could
exchange their poster anytime were deprived of this emotional
benefit of commitment and found the poster no more attractive
than they had before selecting it (see also Frey, 1981; Frey,
Kumpf, Irle, & Gniech, 1984; Girard, 1968; Jecker, 1964).
Interestingly, however, participants failed to predict this
difference and thought they would be equally happy whether
they could exchange their poster or not. People seek extended
warranties and generous return policies in order to preclude the
possibility of future regret, but research suggests that the
warranties may be unnecessary for happiness and the return
policies may actually undermine it.
Principle 5: Pay now and consume later
In 1949, a businessman named Frank McNamara found
himself without any cash after dining at a New York City
restaurant. The mortification he experienced as his wife paid the
bill provided the impetus for him to create one of the earliest
credit cards, establishing the foundation for today’s multibillion dollar credit card industry (Gerson & Woolsey, 2009).
Just as credit card companies allow customers to “consume now
and pay later,” so do merchants whose offers include phrases
such as “No money down!” and “Don’t pay for six months!”
Meanwhile, consumers are provided with the chance to satisfy
their desires faster than ever, instantly downloading music and
movies through iTunes or obtaining same-day delivery of
everything from books to jewelry through Amazon.
This shift toward immediate enjoyment and delayed payment
represents a fundamental change in our economic system that
undermines well-being in two important ways (Thaler &
Sunstein, 2008). The first and most obvious is that the
“consume now and pay later” heuristic leads people to engage
in shortsighted behavior—to rack up debts, to save little for
retirement, etc. In the end, the piper must be paid, and when that
happens, lives are often ruined. Vast literatures on delay of
gratification, intertemporal choice, and delay discounting show
that when people are impatient, they end up less well off
(Ainslie & Haslam, 1992; Berns, Laibson, & Loewenstein,
2007; Frederick, Loewenstein, & O’Donoghue, 2003; McClure,
Laibson, Loewenstein, & Cohen, 2004; Mischel, Shoda, &
Rodriguez, 1989; Soman et al., 2005).
But there is a second reason why “consume now, pay later” is
a bad idea: it eliminates anticipation, and anticipation is a source
of “free” happiness. The person who buys a cookie and eats it
right away may get X units of pleasure from it, but the person
who saves the cookie until later gets X units of pleasure when it
is eventually eaten plus all the additional pleasure of looking
forward to the event. Research shows that people can reap
substantial enjoyment from anticipating an upcoming event
even if the event itself is not entirely enjoyable. Examining three
different vacations ranging from a trip to Europe to a bicycle trip
through California, Mitchell et al. (1997) found that people
viewed the vacation in a more positive light before the
experience than during the experience, suggesting that anticipation may sometimes provide more pleasure than consumption
simply because it is unsullied by reality. Not surprisingly, then,
people who devote time to anticipating enjoyable experiences
report being happier in general (Bryant, 2003).
Of course, memory can be a powerful source of happiness
too, and if anticipation and reminiscence were equal partners in
promoting pleasure then there would be no reason to delay
consumption because each day of looking forward could simply
be traded for a day of looking backward. There is reason to
believe, however, that anticipation is the Batman to the Robin of
reminiscence. Research shows that thinking about future events
triggers stronger emotions than thinking about the same events
in the past (Van Boven & Ashworth, 2007; Caruso, Gilbert, &
Wilson, 2008). For example, students felt happier while
anticipating an upcoming vacation than while reminiscing
about the same vacation (Van Boven & Ashworth, 2007) and
bought a more expensive thank-you gift for someone who was
going to do them a favor than for someone who had already
done them a favor (Caruso et al., 2008). Just as positive events
that lie in the future seem better than the same events in the past,
negative events that lie in the future appear worse than those in
the past. Students wanted more money for a mundane job they
would do in the future than for one they had already done in the
past, and mock-jurors awarded more money to an accident
victim who was going to suffer for a year than who had already
suffered for a year (Caruso et al., 2008).
Do people recognize the emotional benefits of delaying
pleasurable consumption? In some cases they do. Faced with the
choice of when to kiss their favorite celebrity, students in one
study were willing to pay more for the kiss to take place 3 days
later rather than 3 hours later (Loewenstein, 1987). Why, then,
does consumer behavior so often reflect an apparent drive for
immediate consumption? We suggest that while the future may be
more emotionally compelling than the past, nothing is as powerful
as the present. Indeed, people exhibit future anhedonia, believing
that their emotional responses will be less intense in the future
than in the present (Kassam, Gilbert, Boston, & Wilson, 2008).
For example, participants believed that they would experience
more pleasure on the day they received a gift if it were delivered
today rather than 3 months later. If future feelings really were less
intense than present feelings, then one could maximize benefits by
consuming in the present (when the pleasure of consumption is at
its zenith) and paying in the future (when the pain of paying is at
its nadir). Of course, future feelings are not less intense than
current ones, and thus future anhedonia is an affective forecasting
error that causes people to consume immediately and thus miss
out on the pleasures of anticipation.
Delaying consumption provides the benefit of anticipation,
but it may also promote happiness in two other ways. First, it
may alter what consumers choose. When people select goods
for immediate consumption, they are tempted by “vices,” such
as fattening food and lowbrow entertainment, which produce
pleasure right away but lack long-term benefits—or even carry
long-term costs—for well-being (Read & van Leeuwen, 1998;
Read, Loewenstein, & Kalyanaraman, 1999). By comparison,
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
120
delayed consumption is more likely to promote the selection of
“virtues,” which produce more lasting (if less immediate) wellbeing. For example, when asked to choose a snack from an
array that included apples, bananas, paprika-flavored crisps, and
Snickers bars, people overwhelmingly selected an unhealthy
snack if it was to be consumed immediately, but drifted toward
the healthier options when selecting a snack to be consumed the
following week (Read & van Leeuwen, 1998). Because the
present seems to be viewed under an emotional magnifying glass,
people gave in to the temptation of salty, sweet satiation when it
was immediately available, but when such satiation receded into
the future, this temptation no longer loomed large, freeing people
to select more virtuous options—and perhaps to appreciate the
abstract health benefits of a banana at least as much as the
more concrete deliciousness of nutty, chocolaty nougat.
A second way in which delayed consumption may promote
happiness is that it may create uncertainty. Before purchasing a
product, consumers generally face some degree of uncertainty
about which product they will select, what it will be like, and
how they will use it. This uncertainty may help to counteract
the process of adaptation by keeping attention focused on the
product (Kurtz, Wilson, & Gilbert, 2007; Wilson, Centerbar,
Gilbert, & Kermer, 2005; Wilson & Gilbert, 2008). Consider,
for example, a little boy in Toys R Us eagerly clutching both a
stunt kite and a water gun. While the boy would probably
experience immediate delight if his mother offered to buy both
toys for him, new research suggests that more lasting pleasure
would ensue if his mother told him that she would return to
the store the next day and buy him one of the two toys.
Demonstrating this idea, Kurtz et al. (2006) told undergraduates
that they had the opportunity to receive small gifts, such as
Godiva chocolates, coffee mugs, and disposable cameras. At the
beginning of the experiment, participants in the certainty
condition were told which gift or gifts they would receive,
whereas those in the uncertainty condition were told only that
they would receive a gift, but were not told which one until the
end of the session. Compared to those in the certainty condition,
participants who were uncertain about which gift they would
receive spent more time looking at pictures of the gifts and
experienced a more lasting boost in mood during the
experimental session. Indeed, at the end of the experimental
session, participants in the uncertain condition who received
just one gift were happier than those participants in the certain
condition who received two gifts. When provided with a
detailed description of the experimental conditions, however,
most people predicted that they would be happier in the certain
condition. Thus, our Toys R Us kid would likely entreat his
mother to reveal which of the toys she was planning to buy him
the following day, sincerely believing that this knowledge
would make him happy, but his mother would be wise to
keep mum, thereby treating her son to a pleasurable day of
fantasizing about water fights and flying kites.
Principle 6: Think about what you’re not thinking about
According to a recent poll, a majority of adult Canadians
dream of owning a vacation home, preferably by a lake (Gilmer
121
& Cassar, 2009). The features they highlight as important for
their dream cottage include peace and quiet, access to fishing
and boating, and sunset vistas. These are features that are central
to the very essence of a lakeside cottage, and they naturally
come to mind when people envision owning a vacation home.
But, taking a broader view, there are many other, less essential
aspects of cottage ownership that are likely to influence owners’
happiness, from the mosquitoes buzzing just outside, to the latenight calls about a plumbing disaster in the lakeside area, to the
long drives back home after a vacation weekend with sleepy
children scratching their mosquito bites. Cast in the soft light
of imagination, these unpleasant, inessential details naturally
recede from view, potentially biasing consumers’ predictions
about the degree of happiness that their purchases will provide.
This phenomenon stems from a peculiar property of
imagination. The farther away an experience lies in time, the
more abstractly we tend to think of it (Liberman, Sagrastino, &
Trope, 2002). Like airplane passengers viewing a city just as
they begin their descent, we see the distant future in simple,
high-level ways rather than in fine detail. Fully 89% of
Canadians think of a cottage as “a great place for family to
gather,” and although this high-level construal is not inaccurate,
it is certainly incomplete inasmuch as it lacks important details
about family gatherings—from whether to invite Aunt Mandy
whose snoring will keep everyone awake, to what to make for
dinner that will satisfy both the meat-lovers and the glutenallergic vegaquarians in the clan.
This oversight matters because happiness is often in the
details (Kahneman, Krueger, Schkade, Schwarz, & Stone,
2004; Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981). On any
given day, affective experience is shaped largely by local
features of one’s current situation—such as experiencing time
pressure at work or having a leisurely dinner with friends—
rather than by more stable life circumstances (e.g., having high
job security, being married; Kahneman et al., 2004). Over time,
psychological distress is predicted better by the hassles and
“uplifts” of daily life than by more major life events (Kanner et
al., 1981). Thus, in thinking about how to spend our money, it is
worthwhile to consider how purchases will affect the ways in
which we spend our time. For example, consider the choice
between a small, well-kept cottage and a larger “fixer upper”
that have similar prices. The bigger home may seem like a better
deal, but if the fixer upper requires trading Saturday afternoons
with friends for Saturday afternoons with plumbers, it may not
be such a good deal after all.
Of course, after buying a new home, our happiness will
depend not only on the ripple effects associated with home
ownership, but also on the many aspects of daily life that are
simply unrelated to home ownership, from birthday cakes and
concerts to faulty hard drives and burnt toast. Yet, because such
“irrelevant” details of daily life are obscured from view when
we focus our mental telescopes on an important future event, we
may frequently overestimate the emotional impact of a focal
event (Wilson, Wheatley, Meyers, Gilbert, & Axsom, 2000).
Wilson et al. (2000) found evidence for this idea by surveying
football fans at the University of Virginia (UVA) prior to a big
game against a rival school. Asked to imagine how they would
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
feel in the days following the game, football fans expected that
they would be much happier if their team won than if they lost.
The day after UVA won this game, however, football fans were
not nearly as ecstatic as they had expected to be. Prior to making
their affective forecasts, another group of participants were
asked to imagine what they would doing, hour-by-hour, on the
Monday following the football game, and these participants
made more moderate affective forecasts, apparently recognizing
that the joy stemming from their team’s victory would be offset
by the mundane activities of daily student life (e.g., eating,
studying, attending class) that are unrelated to football. This
suggests that consumers who expect a single purchase to have a
lasting impact on their happiness might make more realistic
predictions if they simply thought about a typical day in their
life.
Principle 7: Beware of comparison shopping
Each month, as many as 20 million people visit bizrate.com,
a top comparison-shopping website that entices consumers with
the slogan, “Search. Compare. Conquer.” Sites like this one
offer consumers the opportunity to search for everything from
mattresses and remote control cars to educational degrees,
comparing a vast range of available options within a given
category. The comparison shopping facilitated by these sites
offers obvious benefits to consumers, who can find the best deal
on the product most ideally suited to their needs. But recent
research suggests that comparison shopping may sometimes
come at a cost. By altering the psychological context in which
decisions are made, comparison shopping may distract
consumers from attributes of a product that will be important
for their happiness, focusing their attention instead on attributes
that distinguish the available options.
Examining this idea, Dunn, Wilson, and Gilbert (2003) took
advantage of a natural experiment created by the housing
system at Harvard University. Near the end of their first-year of
college, Harvard undergraduates are randomly assigned to
spend the subsequent 3 years living in one of 12 “houses.” Each
house has a dining hall, as well as recreational facilities, and
much of undergraduate life revolves around the houses. Some
of the houses are located near the center of campus and have
beautiful architecture and lovely rooms, while others are located
farther from the main campus and were built during more
regrettable eras of architectural design. Although there is great
variety in the physical features of the houses, all of them offer
their residents a sense of community, as well as the opportunity
to live with their closest friends, with whom they enter the
housing lottery. When asked directly, first-year students in our
study reported that the physical features of the houses (e.g.,
location, room size) would be less important for their happiness
than the social features (e.g., sense of community, relationships
with roommates). Indeed, when these students later settled into
their houses as sophomores and juniors, their happiness was
predicted by the quality of social features but not by the quality
of physical features in the houses. But, when these students
stood on the brink of entering the housing lottery and were
asked to predict how happy they would be living in each of the
12 houses, their attention gravitated to the features that differed
most between the houses; their predictions were driven largely
by the physical characteristics of each house, which varied
greatly between the 12 houses, while they overlooked the role of
social features in shaping their own future happiness. Because
students focused excessively on highly variable features of the
houses, they fell victim to the impact bias, overestimating how
happy they would be living in the physically desirable houses
and how miserable they would be living in the less desirable
houses.
A similar process is likely to unfold in the real estate market.
Before purchasing a home, people typically attend scores of
open houses and viewings, scrutinizing spec sheets for information about each property’s features. Through this process of
comparison shopping, the features that distinguish one home
from another may come to loom large, while their similarities
fade into the background. As a result, home buyers might overestimate the hedonic consequences of living in a big, beautiful
house in a great location versus a more modest home, leading
them to take out a larger loan than they can truly afford
(potentially sowing the seeds for a nationwide financial crisis).
From this perspective, comparison shopping may focus
consumers’ attention on differences between available options,
leading them to overestimate the hedonic impact of selecting a
more versus less desirable option. To the extent that the process
of comparison shopping focuses attention on hedonically
irrelevant attributes, comparison shopping may even lead
people to choose a less desirable option over a more desirable
option. In a particularly vivid demonstration of this idea, Hsee
(1999) presented participants with a choice between receiving a
larger (2.0 oz.) chocolate valued at $2 that was shaped like a real
cockroach and a smaller (0.5 oz.) chocolate valued at 50 cents
that was shaped like a heart. Although only 46% participants of
participants predicted that they would enjoy the larger roachshaped chocolate more than the smaller heart-shaped one, fully
68% of participants reported that they would choose the roachshaped chocolate. This suggests that comparison shopping may
lead people to seek out products that provide the “best deal”
(i.e., why accept a chocolate valued at 50 cents when I could
have one valued at $2?).
Another problem with comparison shopping is that the
comparisons we make when we are shopping are not the same
comparisons we will make when we consume what we shopped
for (Hsee, Loewenstein, Blount, & Bazerman, 1999; Hsee &
Zhang, 2004). Morewedge et al. (2010) asked people to predict
how much they would enjoy eating a potato chip. Some
participants were in a room that contained superior foods (e.g.,
chocolate) and some were in a room that contained inferior
foods (e.g., sardines). Participants who were exposed to inferior
foods predicted that they would like the chips more than did
participants who were exposed to superior foods. But these
predictions were wrong. When participants actually ate the
chips, they liked them equally, regardless of what room they
were in. When making predictions, participants naturally
compared one imagined experience (chips) to another (chocolate or sardines). But once they actually had a mouthful of crispy
fried salty potato chips, they no longer compared the food they
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
122
123
were eating to the food they might have eaten but didn’t. One of
the dangers of comparison shopping, then, is that the options we
don’t choose typically recede into the past and are no longer
used as standards for comparison.
about the products that will bring us joy because they can see
the nonverbal reactions that may escape our own notice.
Principle 8. Follow the herd instead of your head
When asked to take stock of their lives, people with more
money report being a good deal more satisfied. But when asked
how happy they are at the moment, people with more money are
barely different than those with less (Diener, Ng, Harter, &
Arora, 2010). This suggests that our money provides us with
satisfaction when we think about it, but not when we use it. That
shouldn’t happen. Money can buy many, if not most, if not all of
the things that make people happy, and if it doesn’t, then the
fault is ours. We believe that psychologists can teach people
to spend their money in ways that will indeed increase their
happiness, and we hope we’ve done a bit of that here.
By visiting the Internet Movie Database at imdb.com,
consumers can access a huge array of information to help them
choose a movie, including trailers, plot summaries, and detailed
information about the cast and crew. This information allows
consumers to simulate the experience of watching a movie,
potentially enabling them to make more accurate affective
forecasts and better movie choices. Alternatively, however,
consumers could choose to ignore all of this detailed information
about a movie’s content, and instead click on “user ratings” to find
out how thousands of other visitors to the site rated the movie. It is
possible to break down these ratings by demographics so, for
example, a 32 year old woman could find out how women ages
30–44 liked the movie. So which method is better?
Research suggests that the best way to predict how much we
will enjoy an experience is to see how much someone else
enjoyed it. In one study, Gilbert, Killingsworth, Eyre, and Wilson
(2009) asked women to predict how much they would enjoy a
speed date with a particular man. Some of the women were shown
the man’s photograph and autobiography, while others were
shown only a rating of how much a previous woman had enjoyed
a speed date with the same man a few minutes earlier. Although
the vast majority of the participants expected that those who were
shown the photograph and autobiography would make more
accurate predictions than those who were shown the rating,
precisely the opposite was the case. Indeed, relative to seeing the
photograph and autobiography, seeing the rating reduced
inaccuracy by about 50%. It appears that the 17th century writer
François de La Rochefoucauld was correct when he wrote:
“Before we set our hearts too much upon anything, let us first
examine how happy those are who already possess it.”
Other people can supply us with a valuable source of
data not only by telling us what has made them happy, but also
by providing information about what they think will make
us happy (McConnell, Dunn, Austin, & Rawn, in press). To
demonstrate this idea, McConnell et al. (in press) told
participants that they would be asked to eat two small snacks
and then unveiled a piece of celery and a chocolate chip cookie,
in turn. After seeing each food, participants predicted how much
they would enjoy eating it, and then ate it and rated their actual
enjoyment. Unbeknownst to participants, they were being
watched by two observers, who surreptitiously rated participants’ facial reactions when each food was unveiled. The flash
of affect that appeared on participants’ faces when they saw
each food significantly predicted their enjoyment of the food—
above and beyond the affective forecasts the participants
themselves had made just moments before eating. This suggests
that an attentive dining companion may be able to tell whether
we would enjoy the fish or the chicken simply by watching
our reactions when these options are presented. More broadly,
other people may provide a useful source of information
Conclusion
References
Ainslie, G., & Haslam, N. (1992). Hyperbolic discounting. In G. Loewenstein,
& J. Elster (Eds.), Choice over time (pp. 57−92). New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
Aknin, L.B., Barrington-Leigh, C.P., Dunn, E.W., Helliwell, J.F., BiswasDiener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C.E., & Norton, M.I.
(2010). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a
psychological universal. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Aknin, L., Norton, M. I., & Dunn, E. W. (2009). From wealth to well-being?
Money matters, but less than people think. Journal of Positive Psychology,
4, 523−527.
Berns, G. S., Laibson, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2007). Intertemporal choice—
toward an integrative framework. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 482−488.
Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. J. (2004). Well-being over time in Britain
and the USA. Journal of Public Economics, 88(7–8), 1359−1386.
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we
underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive
events? The American Psychologist, 59(1), 20−28.
Bryant, F. B. (2003). Savoring Beliefs Inventory (SBI): A scale for measuring
beliefs about savouring. Journal of Mental Health, 12, 175−196.
Berner, R. (2004, December 20). The Warranty Windfall. Business Week.
Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com, December 20.
Carter, T., & Gilovich, T. (2010). The relative relativity of experiential and
material purchases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98,
146−159.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). If we are so rich, why aren’t we happy? The
American Psychologist, 54, 821−827.
Caruso, E. M., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2008). A wrinkle in time:
Asymmetric valuation of past and future events. Psychological Science, 19
(8), 796−801.
Chen, T., Kalra, A., & Sun, B. (2009). Why do consumers buy extended service
contracts? Journal of Consumer Research, 36(4), 611−623.
Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2002). Will money increase subjective wellbeing? Social Indicators Research, 57(2), 119−169.
Diener, E., Ng, W., Harter, J., & Arora, R. (2010). Wealth and happiness across
the world: Material prosperity predicts life evaluation, whereas psychosocial
prosperity predicts positive feeling. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 99(1), 52−61.
Diener, E., Sandvik, E., & Pavot, W. (1991). Happiness is the frequency, not the
intensity, of positive versus negative affect. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N.
Schwarz (Eds.), Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective
(pp. 119−140). Oxford: Pergamon.
Diener, E., & Seligman, E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological
Science, 13(3), 81−84.
Dunbar, R. I. M., & Shultz, S. (2007). Evolution of the social brain. Science,
317, 1344−1347.
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others
promotes happiness. Science, 319, 1687−1688.
Dunn, E. W., Biesanz, J. C., Human, L. J., & Finn, S. (2007). Misunderstanding
the affective consequences of everyday social interactions: The hidden
benefits of putting one’s best face forward. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 92, 990−1005.
Dunn, E. W., Huntsinger, J., Lun, J., & Sinclair, S. (2008). The gift of similarity:
How good and bad gifts influence relationships. Social Cognition, 26, 469−481.
Dunn, E. W., Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2003). Location, location,
location: The misprediction of satisfaction in housing lotteries. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1421−1432.
Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., & O’Donoghue, T. (2003). Time discounting
and time preference: A critical review. In G. Loewenstein, D. Read, & R. F.
Baumeister (Eds.), Time and decision (pp. 13−86). New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
Frey, D. (1981). Reversible and irreversible decisions: Preference for consonant
information as a function of attractiveness of decision alternatives.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 621−626.
Frey, D., Kumpf, M., Irle, M., & Gniech, G. (1984). Re-evaluation of decision
alternatives dependent upon the reversibility of a decision and the passage of
time. European Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 447−450.
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2000). What can economists learn from happiness
research? Journal of Economic Literature, 40, 402−435.
Gerson, E. S., & Woolsey, B. (2009). The history of credit cards. Retrieved from
http://www.creditcards.com/credit-card-news/credit-cards-history-1264.php.
Gilbert, D. T. (2006). Stumbling on happiness. New York: Knopf.
Gilbert, D. T., & Ebert, J. E. J. (2002). Decisions and revisions: The affective
forecasting of changeable outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 82(4), 503−514.
Gilbert, D. T., Killingsworth, M. A., Eyre, R. N., & Wilson, T. D. (2009). The
surprising power of neighborly advice. Science, 323, 1617−1619.
Gilbert, D. T., Morewedge, C. K., Risen, J. L., & Wilson, T. D. (2004). Looking
forward to looking backward: The misprediction of regret. Psychological
Science, 15, 346−350.
Gilbert, D. T., Pinel, E. C., Wilson, T. D., Blumberg, S. J., & Wheatley, T.
(1998). Immune neglect: A source of durability bias in affective forecasting.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 617−638.
Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2007). Prospection: Experiencing the future.
Science, 317, 1351−1354.
Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2009). Why the brain talks to itself: Sources of
error in emotional prediction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B, 364, 1335−1341.
Gilmer, T., & Cassar, M. (2009). Canadians still aspire to own recreational
property: Dream alive as summer arrives. Retrieved http://www.royallepage.
ca/en/utility/news/content.aspx?id=828&bottomcontent=874&toolstips=
1052&relatedcontent=1074.
Girard, G. (1968). Décision révocable et fuite du conflit. Bulletin du CERP, 18,
245−251.
Hsee, C. K. (1999). Value seeking and prediction–decision inconsistency: Why
don’t people take what they predict they’ll like the most? Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 6(4), 555−561.
Hsee, C. K., Loewenstein, G. F., Blount, S., & Bazerman, M. H. (1999).
Preference reversals between joint and separate evaluations of options: A
review and theoretical analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125(5), 576−590.
Hsee, C. K., & Zhang, J. (2004). Distinction bias: Misprediction and mischoice due to
joint evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(5), 680−695.
Jecker, J. D. (1964). Selective exposure to new information. In L. Festinger
(Ed.), Conflict, decision, and dissonance (pp. 65−82). Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N.
Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: Foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 3−25).
New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. H. (1990). Experimental tests of the
endowment effect and the Coase theorem. Journal of Political Economy, 98,
1325−1348.
Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A.
(2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day
reconstruction method. Science, 306(5702), 1776−1780.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision
under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263−291.
Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison
of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major
life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 1−39.
Kassam, K. S., Gilbert, D. T., Boston, A., & Wilson, T. D. (2008). Future
anhedonia and time discounting. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
44(6), 1533−1537.
Kermer, D. A., Driver-Linn, E., Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2006). Loss
aversion is an affective forecasting error. Psychological Science, 17,
649−653.
Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy
mind. Science, 330, 932.
Kurtz, J. L., Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2007). Quantity versus uncertainty:
When winning one prize is better than winning two. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, 43(6), 979−985.
Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007). Neural responses to
taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations.
Science, 316, 1622−1625.
Liberman, N., Sagristano, M. D., & Trope, Y. (2002). The effect of temporal
distance on level of mental construal. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 38(6), 523−534.
Linville, P. W., & Fischer, G. W. (1991). Preferences for separating or
combining events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(1),
5−23.
Loewenstein, G. (1987). Anticipation and the valuation of delayed consumption.
The Economic Journal, 97(387), 666−684.
Loewenstein, G. (1999). Because it is there: The challenge of mountaineering
for utility theory. Kyklos, 52(3), 315−344.
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The
grasshopper and the ant: Separate neural systems value immediate and
delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306, 503−507.
McConnell, A. R., Dunn, E. W., Austin, S. N., & Rawn, C. D. (in press). Blind
spots in the search for happiness: Implicit attitudes and nonverbal leakage
predict affective forecasting errors. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology.
Mellers, B. A. (2000). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences.
Psychological Bulletin, 126(6), 910−924.
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in
children. Science, 244, 933−938.
Mitchell, T. R., Thompson, L., Peterson, E., & Cronk, R. (1997). Temporal
adjustments in the evaluation of events: The “rosy view”. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 33(4), 421−448.
Morewedge, C. K., Gilbert, D. T., Keysar, B., Berkovits, M. J., & Wilson, T. D.
(2007). Mispredicting the hedonic benefits of segregated gains. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 136(4), 700−709.
Morewedge, C. K., Gilbert, D. T., Myrseth, K. O. R., Kassam, K. S., & Wilson,
T. D. (2010). Consuming experience: Why affective forecasters overestimate comparative value. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46,
986−992.
Morewedge, C. K., Shu, L. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2009). Bad
riddance or good rubbish? Ownership and not loss aversion causes the
endowment effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45,
947−951.
Nelson, L. D., & Meyvis, T. (2008). Interrupted consumption: Adaptation and
the disruption of hedonic experience. Journal of Marketing Research, 45,
654−664.
Nicolao, L., Irwin, J. R., & Goodman, J. K. (2009). Happiness for sale: Do
experiential purchases make consumers happier than material purchases?
Journal of Consumer Research, 36(2), 188−198.
Parducci, A. (1995). Happiness, pleasure, and judgment: The contextual theory
and its applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Quoidbach, J., Dunn, E.W., Petrides, K. V., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010). Money
giveth, money taketh away: The dual effect of wealth on happiness.
Psychological Science, 21, 759–763.
Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Kalyanaraman, S. (1999). Mixing virtue and vice:
Combining the immediacy effect and the diversification aeuristic. Journal of
Behavioral Decision Making. : John Wiley & Sons, Inc (Writer).
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
124
Read, D., & van Leeuwen, B. (1998). Predicting hunger: The effects of appetite
and delay on choice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 76(2), 189−205.
Schervish, P., & Szanto, A. (2006). Wealth and giving by the numbers.
Reflections, 2, 30−49.
Soman, D., Ainslie, G., Frederick, S., Li, X., Lynch, J., Moreau, P., et al. (2005).
The psychology of intertemporal discounting: Why are distant events valued
differently from proximal ones? Marketing Letters, 16(3), 347−360.
Smith, D. M., Langa, K. M., Kabeto, M. U., & Ubel, P. A. (2005). Happiness
and physical activity in special populations: Evidence from Korean survey
data. Journal of Sports Economics, 11, 136−156.
Thaler, R. (1985). Mental accounting and consumer choice. Marketing Science,
4(3), 199−214.
Thaler, R. H. (1999). Mental accounting matters. Journal of Behavioral
Decision Making, 12(3), 183−206.
Thaler, R. H., & Johnson, E. J. (1990). Gambling with the house money and
trying to break even: The effects of prior outcomes on risky choice.
Management Science, 36(6), 643−660.
Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health,
wealth, and happiness. New Haven: Yale University Press.
125
Ubel, P. (2006). You’re stronger than you think. New York: McGraw Hill.
Van Boven, L., & Gilovich, T. (2003). To do or to have? That is the question.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(6), 1193−1202.
Van Boven, L., & Ashworth, L. (2007). Looking forward, looking back:
Anticipation is more evocative than retrospection. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 136(2), 289−300.
Vohs, K. D., Mead, N. L., & Goode, M. R. (2006). The psychological
consequences of money. Science, 314, 1154−1156.
Wilson, T. D., Centerbar, D. B., Kermer, D. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2005).
The pleasures of uncertainty: Prolonging positive moods in ways people
do not anticipate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(1),
5−21.
Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2003). Affective forecasting. In M. P. Zanna
(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 35. (pp. 345−411)
San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2008). Explaining away: A model of affective
adaptation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 370−386.
Wilson, T. D., Wheatley, T., Meyers, J. M., Gilbert, D. T., & Axsom, D. (2000).
Focalism: A source of durability bias in affective forecasting. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 78(5), 821−836.
15327663, 2011, 2, Downloaded from https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002 by University Of Colorado Librari, Wiley Online Library on [10/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
E.W. Dunn et al. / Journal of Consumer Psychology 21 (2011) 115–125
How Do Simple Positive Activities Increase
Well-Being?
Current Directions in Psychological
Science
22(1) 57­–62
© The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0963721412469809
http://cdps.sagepub.com
Sonja Lyubomirsky and Kristin Layous
University of California, Riverside
Abstract
Theory and research suggest that people can increase their happiness through simple intentional positive activities, such as
expressing gratitude or practicing kindness. Investigators have recently begun to study the optimal conditions under which
positive activities increase happiness and the mechanisms by which these effects work. According to our positive-activity
model, features of positive activities (e.g., their dosage and variety), features of persons (e.g., their motivation and effort),
and person-activity fit moderate the effect of positive activities on well-being. Furthermore, the model posits four mediating
variables: positive emotions, positive thoughts, positive behaviors, and need satisfaction. Empirical evidence supporting the
model and future directions are discussed.
Keywords
happiness, subjective well-being, positive activities, positive interventions, self-improvement
Happiness not only feels good, it is good. Happier people have
more stable marriages, stronger immune systems, higher
incomes, and more creative ideas than their less happy peers
(Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Furthermore, crosssectional, longitudinal, and experimental studies have demonstrated that happiness (i.e., long-term positive affect or
well-being) is not merely a correlate or consequence of success but a cause of it (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005).
For the majority of people around the globe who report wanting to be happy (Diener, 2000), these findings would be disheartening if happiness could not be achieved intentionally.
Despite evidence suggesting that individual differences in
well-being are strongly influenced by genetics (e.g., Lykken &
Tellegen, 1996), researchers have theorized that much of people’s happiness is under their control (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon,
& Schkade, 2005). A study that combined results from 51 randomized controlled interventions found that people prompted
to engage in positive intentional activities, such as thinking
gratefully, optimistically, or mindfully, became significantly
happier (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).
By examining the characteristics of dispositionally happy
people (e.g., their tendencies to be grateful, exhibit optimistic
thinking, and engage in prosocial behavior; Lyubomirsky,
2001), researchers have been able to posit activities that
might increase people’s happiness if deliberately practiced.
We define positive activities as simple, intentional, and regular
practices meant to mimic the myriad healthy thoughts and
behaviors associated with naturally happy people. The efficacy of numerous positive activities for improving well-being
has now been tested empirically. Experimenters have
prompted people to write letters expressing gratitude (Boehm,
Lyubomirsky, & Sheldon, 2011; Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof,
Boehm, & Sheldon, 2011; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson,
2005), to count their blessings (Emmons & McCullough,
2003; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005; Seligman et
al., 2005), to perform kind acts (Della Porta, Jacobs Bao, &
Lyubomirsky, 2012; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005;
Sheldon, Boehm, & Lyubomirsky, 2012), to cultivate their
strengths (Seligman et al., 2005), to visualize their ideal future
selves (Boehm et al., 2011; King, 2001; Layous, Nelson, &
Lyubomirsky, 2012), and to meditate (Fredrickson, Cohn,
Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008). All of these practices are brief,
self-administered, and cost-effective.
Factors Affecting the Success of Positive
Activities
Research on happiness-increasing strategies has shown that
they work (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), but under what conditions do they work best? Our positive-activity model (see
Fig. 1) draws on theoretical and empirical evidence to depict
(a) an overview of the activity features and person features
that render a positive activity optimally effective and (b) the
Corresponding Author:
Sonja Lyubomirsky, Department of Psychology, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521
E-mail: sonja.lyubomirsky@ucr.edu
58
Lyubomirsky, Layous
Fig. 1. The positive-activity model, which aims to explain how and why performing positive activities makes people happier. As
illustrated at top, positive activities increase positive emotions, positive thoughts, positive behaviors, and need satisfaction, all of
which in turn enhance well-being. Features of positive activities (e.g., dosage and variety) and of the person (e.g., motivation and
effort) influence the degree to which the activities improve well-being. An optimal person-activity fit (i.e., the overlap between
activity and person features) further predicts increases in well-being.
mechanisms that underlie the positive activity’s successful
improvement of well-being. Furthermore, the extent to which
any activity feature influences a positive activity’s success
depends on the fit between the person (e.g., his or her personality or culture) and that activity feature (e.g., dosage or social
support; represented in Fig. 1 as person-activity fit).
Moderators
Using randomized controlled studies, researchers have identified several conditions under which positive activities most
effectively enhance happiness. Activity features concern the
positive activity itself (e.g., what type of behavior it is and
how often it is practiced), whereas person features pertain to
the person practicing the positive activity (e.g., whether he
or she is motivated to pursue happiness). Finally, personactivity fit is the customized match between activity and person features.
Features of the activity. Features of positive activities—
including their dosage, variety, sequence, and built-in social
support—all influence their success at increasing happiness.
For example, as with any medical or psychological treatment,
the dosage (i.e., frequency and timing) of a positive activity
matters. In one study, performing five kind acts in one day
each week (for 6 weeks) resulted in larger increases in wellbeing than did performing five kind acts throughout the week
(Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005), a pattern indicating that “watering down” positive activities by spreading them
out might limit their potency. Other positive activities, however, could easily be overdone. For example, in another study,
counting one’s blessings was less effective three times per
week than once per week (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade,
2005). What is interesting is that both studies suggested that
positive activities performed once a week are maximally
effective, possibly because many cultural routines (involving
work, worship, and even television) are conducted weekly.
Positive-Activity Model
Determining the ideal dosage of positive activities is tricky,
however, because it likely varies by person and by activity. For
example, in naturalistic settings, people report practicing
happiness-increasing activities several times a week for more
than an hour each time (Parks, Della Porta, Pierce, Zilca, &
Lyubomirsky, 2012), and in one study, users of a positiveactivity smartphone application reported bigger benefits when
they logged in more frequently (Parks et al., 2012, Study 3).
Perhaps when people are free to choose their happinessincreasing activities, they do not view the activities as cumbersome and gladly perform them for longer and more often.
Hence, person–activity fit likely governs optimal dosage.
Furthermore, when people choose their own positive activities rather than following an experimenter’s instructions, they
may be more likely to vary their practices. Theory and research
suggest that positive changes in people’s lives (e.g., beginning
an exercise regimen; Glaros & Janelle, 2001) are more likely
to promote sustained boosts in well-being if the events generated by the positive changes are varied (for a review, see
Lyubomirsky, 2011). For example, participants who performed
varied kind acts every week increased their levels of wellbeing more than did participants who performed the same kind
acts (Sheldon et al., 2012).
Variety matters not only to the practice of a single positive
activity but also to the practice of multiple activities. Indeed,
participants in the naturalistic study reported performing
almost eight different positive activities simultaneously (Parks
et al., 2012), and participants in a Web-based study obtained
the biggest benefits when practicing two or four positive activities concurrently (Schueller & Parks, 2012). Further evidence
has suggested that certain positive activities might be good
“starter” activities. U.S. participants who began a 6-week happiness intervention by writing letters expressing gratitude
experienced greater increases in well-being than did those
who began by performing acts of kindness (Layous, Lee, Choi,
& Lyubomirsky, 2012). Expressing gratitude might have
served as a trigger that precipitated an immediate upward spiral of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2001) or galvanized
people to “pay it forward,” thereby leading them to exert more
effort and ultimately reap greater benefits.
Engaging in positive activities, like making other behavioral changes, is also more successful when the doers of positive activities have social support (Bandura, 1986). For
example, participants who received autonomy-supporting
messages from a peer while performing kind acts saw larger
improvements in happiness than those who did not receive
social support or who performed a control activity (Della Porta
et al., 2012). Similarly, students who read an empathetic peer
testimonial about the challenges of an optimism-boosting
exercise experienced greater increases in positive affect than
all other groups (Layous, Nelson, & Lyubomirsky, 2012). The
results from these two studies indicate that even virtual social
support (e.g., through social media) can bolster the benefits of
positive activities.
59
Factors like variety and social support can conceivably be
applied to any positive activity (see the list of variables under
the “Across” heading in the “Activity Features” box in Fig. 1).
Other factors, however, differentiate positive activities from
one another (see the list of variables under the “Between”
heading in the “Activity Features” box in Fig. 1) and hence
may cause certain activities to work best for certain people.
For example, positive activities can be relatively self-oriented
(e.g., practicing optimism) or other-oriented (e.g., expressing
gratitude). Collectivists might benefit more from otheroriented positive activities and individualists from selforiented activities (for suggestive evidence, see Boehm et al.,
2011). Further, certain positive activities are social-behavioral
in nature (e.g., being kind), whereas others are reflectivecognitive (e.g., savoring happy times), potentially benefitting
particularly lonely and frazzled individuals, respectively.
Finally, positive activities differ in their time orientation—they
may be focused on the past (e.g., expressing gratitude), the
present (e.g., savoring the moment), or the future (e.g., thinking
optimistically; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). Older adults might
benefit more from reflecting on their legacies, whereas youths
might benefit more from visualizing bright futures.
Features of the person. Overall, positive activities that have
optimal features are more likely to promote durable wellbeing. However, attributes of the person engaging in the activity also matter. As illustrated in Figure 1 (see the “Person
Features” box), for people to benefit from a positive activity
(or any self-improvement behavior, for that matter), they
have to effortfully engage in it (Layous, Lee, et al., 2012;
Lyubomirsky et al., 2011), be motivated to become happier
(Deci & Ryan, 2000; Lyubomirsky et al., 2011), and believe
that their efforts will pay off (Ajzen, 1991; Bandura, 1986;
Layous, Nelson, & Lyubomirsky, 2012). For example, participants who deliberately chose to complete “happiness-increasing” exercises (rather than neutral ones) and who put more
effort into them (as assessed by judges) showed bigger gains
in well-being (Lyubomirsky et al., 2011).
In addition to people’s motivation, efforts, and beliefs, people’s personalities may affect how much they stand to gain
from positive activities. Although the association between personality and happiness is long established (Costa & McCrae,
1980), researchers are only now exploring whether individuals’ personalities influence positive activities’ success. Recent
evidence has shown that people who are highly extraverted
and open to experience are especially predisposed to benefit
from positive activities (Senf & Liau, 2012).
People’s initial affective state when they embark on a positive activity also predicts how much they will benefit from
it, but the evidence in this area is mixed. Some research has
suggested that people low in positive affect (Froh, Kashdan,
Ozimkowski, & Miller, 2009) or with moderate depressive
symptoms (Seligman et al., 2005) benefit the most from positive activities, perhaps because they have more room to improve.
60
Lyubomirsky, Layous
Other evidence has indicated that moderately depressed individuals have deficits that prevent them from taking full advantage of some positive practices—such individuals, for example,
benefit more from simple pleasant activities than from reflective
ones (Sin, Della Porta, & Lyubomirsky, 2011). More research is
needed to identify specific activities that are optimal for individuals within specific affective ranges.
The degree to which people perceive support from their
own social network—especially support for their pursuit of
happiness—is also likely to affect their ability to reap rewards
from positive activities. We predict that happiness seekers
who feel more supported by close others in their positive practices will see relatively greater improvements in well-being
(see Wing & Jeffery, 1999, for parallel findings regarding
weight loss).
Finally, demographic variables may influence gains in
well-being from positive activities. For example, older people
benefit relatively more than younger people from practicing a
range of positive activities (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), perhaps because they have more time to commit to the activities,
take them more seriously, and engage in them more effortfully.
Also, Westerners gain more from positive activities (namely,
expressing gratitude and optimism) than Easterners do (Boehm
et al., 2011), possibly because Westerners value and express
happiness more (Diener, Suh, Smith, & Shao, 1995; Tsai,
Knutson, & Fung, 2006). Further research should examine the
role of other demographic factors, such as sex and socioeconomic status. For example, people struggling to afford food
are likely to regard the pursuit of happiness as frivolous.
subsequent improvements in such personal resources as social
relationships and physical health. These enhanced personal
resources then boosted life satisfaction (Fredrickson et al.,
2008). Engaging in positive activities also leads people to construe life events more positively. In one study, people who
expressed gratitude and optimism reported their weekly experiences as being more satisfying over time, although ratings by
independent raters did not demonstrate any objective improvement in the experiences (Dickerhoof, 2007). Further, positive
activities can prompt people to engage in unrelated positive
behaviors. For example, participants instructed to “count their
blessings” increased their time spent exercising (Emmons &
McCullough, 2003).
Practicing positive activities may also boost well-being by
satisfying basic psychological needs, such as autonomy (control), relatedness (connectedness), and competence (efficacy;
Deci & Ryan, 2000). In a 6-week intervention, expressing
gratitude and optimism increased self-reported autonomy and
relatedness (but not competence), which in turn increased life
satisfaction (Boehm, Lyubomirsky, & Sheldon, 2012). In a
study that directly manipulated these hypothesized mediators,
people who engaged in autonomy- and relatedness-fulfilling
activities saw greater increases in well-being than did people
who focused on their life circumstances (Sheldon et al., 2010).
More research is needed to determine the mediating role of
competence and to investigate whether particular positive
activities might be better suited to fulfilling particular needs.
Person-activity fit. Although features of positive activities
and features of the doers of positive activities broadly influence those activities’ success at increasing happiness, certain
types of activities are better for certain types of people. We
predict that activity features and person features interact with
one another (note the overlap of the “Activity Features” and
“Person Features” boxes in Fig. 1). This notion of the importance of person-activity fit is supported by studies showing
that the degree to which participants report enjoying a
positive activity predicts how often they complete that activity
(Schueller, 2010) and how much happiness they derive from it
(Lyubomirsky, 2008).
Happiness seekers no longer need rely on unsubstantiated
advice from self-help books, magazine sidebars, or infomercials. Instead, a growing body of evidence based on randomized controlled experiments demonstrates that relatively
simple intentional changes in one’s thoughts and behaviors
can precipitate meaningful increases in happiness. Furthermore, as highlighted by the positive-activity model, investigators have begun to pinpoint (albeit likely nonexhaustively) the
conditions under which positive activities are most efficacious
and the processes by which they work. The model also reveals
gaps in empirical evidence (e.g., regarding the role of social
support) and conflicting findings (e.g., regarding the role of
one’s initial affective state) that await further research.
The positive-activity model addresses activity features and
person features that influence the success of positive activities
as people perform them. However, future research should also
investigate how people select positive activities in the first
place. For example, individuals high in sensation seeking
might choose varied and novel (rather than similar and familiar) positive activities, and mildly depressed individuals might
choose relatively undemanding activities.
Our model could also be extended to predict the extent
to which doers of positive activities persist at them—and
hence continue to reap benefits (Cohn & Fredrickson, 2010;
Lyubomirsky et al., 2011; Seligman et al., 2005). One of the
Mechanisms
Although research has begun to reveal the conditions under
which positive activities increase well-being, investigators
still know little about how positive activities work and about
the processes by which they boost well-being. We posit
that positive activities are positive for an individual only to
the extent that they stimulate increases in positive emotions,
positive thoughts, positive behaviors, and need satisfaction,
which in turn increase happiness. For example, increases in
positive emotions triggered by a meditation-based positive
activity mediated the relationship between the activity and
Future Directions and Conclusions
Positive-Activity Model
obstacles to both continued engagement and continued benefits is hedonic adaptation; in other words, the rewards of positive activities dissipate with time (Lyubomirsky, 2011; Sheldon
et al., 2012). To avoid adaptation, happiness seekers should
vary their positive practices (which activities to perform, how
many, how often, and with whom). Additionally, the more
motivated individuals are to pursue happiness (Lyubomirsky
et al., 2011), the more their families or cultures endorse this
pursuit, and the more resources (e.g., time, effort) they have to
accomplish it, the more likely they are to maintain their efforts
(but see Gruber, Mauss, & Tamir, 2011).
In sum, as researchers begin to understand the how, what,
when, and why of happiness-increasing strategies, they will
become better positioned to provide empirically based advice
to the millions of people—in family, school, work, health,
organizational, or mental health settings—who yearn to be
happier.
Recommended Reading
Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). (See References). A
discussion of four conditions under which the pursuit of happiness
is detrimental.
Layous, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (in press). The how, who, what, when,
and why of happiness: Mechanisms underlying the success of positive interventions. In J. Gruber & J. Moskowitz (Eds.), Light and
dark side of positive emotion. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press. A chapter providing a detailed discussion of the moderators
and mediators proposed by the positive-activity model.
Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). (See References). A highly accessible,
empirically driven overview of happiness-increasing strategies.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). (See
References). A study illustrating original research on the benefits
of multiple representative positive activities.
Sheldon, K. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Steger, M. F. (Eds.). (2011).
Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press. An edited volume with
chapters highlighting cutting-edge research related to positive
activities and well-being.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared that they had no conflicts of interest with
respect to their authorship or the publication of this article.
References
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational
Behavior and Human Processes, 50, 179–211.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A
social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Boehm, J. K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). A
longitudinal experimental study comparing the effectiveness of
happiness-enhancing strategies in Anglo Americans and Asian
Americans. Cognition & Emotion, 25, 1263–1272.
Boehm, J. K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. M. (2012). [The role
of need satisfying emotions in a positive activity intervention].
Unpublished raw data.
61
Cohn, M. A., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). In search of durable positive psychology interventions: Predictors and consequences of
long-term positive behavior change. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 355–366.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1980). Influence of extraversion
and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy
people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,
668–678.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Self-determination theory and the
facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and wellbeing. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Della Porta, M. D., Jacobs Bao, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Does
supporting autonomy facilitate the pursuit of happiness? Results
from an experimental longitudinal well-being intervention.
Manuscript submitted for publication.
Dickerhoof, R. M. (2007). Expressing optimism and gratitude: A longitudinal investigation of cognitive strategies to increase wellbeing. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68, 4174 (UMI No.
3270426).
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness
and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55,
34–43.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Smith, H., & Shao, L. (1995). National differences in subjective well-being: Why do they occur? Social Indicators Research, 34, 7–32.
Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings
versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and
subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 84, 377–389.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive
psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.
American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel,
S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced
through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
95, 1045–1062.
Froh, J. J., Kashdan, T. B., Ozimkowski, K. M., & Miller, N. M.
(2009). Who benefits the most from a gratitude intervention in
children and adolescents? Examining positive affect as a moderator. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 408–422.
Glaros, N. M., & Janelle, C. M. (2001). Varying the mode of cardiovascular exercise to increase adherence. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 42–62.
Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A dark side of happiness? How, when, and why happiness is not always good. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 222–233.
King, L. A. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 798–807.
Layous, K., Lee, H. C., Choi, I., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Culture
matters when designing a successful positive activity: A comparison of the United States and South Korea. Manuscript submitted
for publication.
Layous, K., Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). What is the
optimal way to deliver a positive activity intervention? The case
62
of writing about one’s best possible selves. Journal of Happiness Studies. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10902012-9346-2
Lykken, D., & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science, 7, 186–189.
Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others?
American Psychologist, 56, 239–249.
Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). The how of happiness: A scientific approach
to getting the life you want. New York, NY: Penguin Press.
Lyubomirsky, S. (2011). Hedonic adaptation to positive and negative experiences. In S. Folkman (Ed.), Oxford handbook of stress,
health, and coping (pp. 200–224). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lyubomirsky, S., Dickerhoof, R., Boehm, J. K., & Sheldon, K. M.
(2011). Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper way:
An experimental longitudinal intervention to boost well-being.
Emotion, 11, 391–402.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing
happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of
General Psychology, 9, 111–131.
Parks, A., Della Porta, M., Pierce, R. S., Zilca, R., & Lyubomirsky, S.
(2012). Pursuing happiness in everyday life: The characteristics
and behaviors of online happiness seekers. Emotion. Advance
online publication. doi:10.1037/a0028587
Schueller, S. M. (2010). Preferences for positive psychology exercises. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 192–203.
Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. (2012). Disseminating self-help: Positive psychology exercises in an online trial. Journal of Medical
Internet Research, 14, e63.
Lyubomirsky, Layous
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005).
Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421.
Senf, K., & Liau, A. K. (2012). The effects of positive interventions
on happiness and depressive symptoms, with an examination
of personality as a moderator. Journal of Happiness Studies.
Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9344-4
Sheldon, K. M., Abad, N., Ferguson, Y., Gunz, A., Houser-Marko, L.,
Nicho…

Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:

Turnitin Report

Formatting

Title Page

Citation

Outline

Place an Order