1The b ain i con ide ed he command cen e of he h man bod . An ne bo n bab ha all
he b ain cell commonl kno n a
e
ha a e e i ed in connec ing diffe en b ain cell
o fo e he p ope f nc ioning of diffe en b ain ac i i ie . The de elopmen of he b ain begin
o eek af e concep ion. Wi hin hi pe iod he de eloping emb o o gani e i elf in o a
h ee-la e ed, phe ical
fo m he e a
c
e hich hicken o fo m a e a
be ha lead o he de elopmen of he cen al ne o
he b ain and he pinal co d. The clo
h ee- e icle
ne al
a e ha f
c
e hich f
e of he ne al
he g o
he fold i elf o
em compo ed of
be gi e i e o he fo ma ion of a
o become a b ain
c
e. The an e io pa of he
be become he fo eb ain ha i compo ed of he ce eb a he i he e, die ce ha
halam
and h po halam , and ba a ga g ia. The middle pa of he ne al
he midb ain hich connec
be become
he hindb ain and diencephalon. The compo i ion of he midb ain
incl de he ce ebell m, med lla oblonga a, and pon . The la pa i he hindb ain hich
con i
of he
e e ce ha
Wi hin he fi
and
e e ce ha
.
10 eek af e concep ion, he b ain apidl de elop
change . Some b ain egion ma
e fa e
han o he egion and hi p oce
i h d ama ic local
con in e igh
in o he eenage pe iod. Cell p olife a ion cha ac e i e b ain de elopmen ince i i a p oce
ha gi e i e o he fo ma ion of e
p od ced h o gh he
e
i
ome ime called he g ia ce . The e ne on a e
ic di i ion of non-ne onal cell a p oce
ge e i . The cell p od ced h o gh e
h o gh a p oce
become ei he
commonl
e
efe ed o a ce
o g ia ce
of en efe ed o a
ge e i hen mig a e o hei pecific egion
ig a i
h o gh a p oce
. The e cell hen diffe en ia e o
of ce diffe e ia i
cell ha e mig a ed o hei de ina ion, he ma diffe en ia e in o ma
and de d i e o ome ime i can e ac h o gh a p oce
kno n a a
. Once he ne al
e ne on
iha
i . S nap ogene i
2
hen follo
occ
he eb
he ne on e end hei de d i e and a
af e 28 eek . O e p od c ion of
p ning al ho gh hi p oce
a e ea a ge e
o fo m
a e , hi
nap e i clo el follo ed b ce dea h o
i dependen on fac o
ch a e pe ience. The la
in ol ing he efinemen of
a ic c
ec i
nap e
age i he
follo ing he lo
of
o he and he e abli hmen of ne one .
Diffe e
e
f ce
ha
e de e
The h man bod i compo ed of billion of cell ha a e in e connec ed and comm nica e
i h each o he o comple e impo an f nc ion . The ne o
man cell
i h he e
o
e e ce
em fo e ample i made p of
being he mo impo an . The e
ecei e
info ma ion f om o he bod cell hen in eg a e hi info ma ion befo e di ib ing i o o he
ne on . The ne o k of ne on in he h man b ain con ol almo all bod f nc ion incl ding
beha io . The b ain ne on con ain o he impo an
d ia
ga e e ha
ppo
Some of he e o ganelle incl de
i ch
ge e encoded DNA, and ib
e ha a e in ol ed in he an la ion of gene ic in
O he impo an cell of he bod incl de g ia ce
ene g p od ce , ce –
hei f nc ion .
ha
a pe fo m he ole of ecei ing
ne on . A
a ic i
con aining
c ion .
ppo and con ib e o info ma ion
p oce ing. The de d i e a e he cell la e en ion ha ac a inp
inp /info ma ion f om o he b ain ne on ac o
ce
one ha ecei e
nap e . The ce b d
ome ime called
and in eg a e info ma ion ecei ed b
pe fo m he ole of cond c ing elec ical ignal f om he ce b d . Ano he
impo an bod cell i he a
e
i a
e pon ible fo
a e o o he cell of he bod .
H
e
an mi ing ne al ac i i
ac o
3
The cen al ne o
em i compo ed of
o impo an cell namel
he e
and
he g ia. The ne on a e he mo impo an pla e in he h man b ain. The a e called
info ma ion an mi e of me enge a he
ig a
o ini ia e an ac i
b ain a
ell a be een he b ain and o he pa
Ne on and hei
namel
he ce b d
of he e
hif f om ega i e i
ppo cell
h man bod ac i i
e a
ell a che ica
e ia o an mi info ma ion i hin diffe en ec ion of he
po en ial, he e a e empo a
e e
e e ec ica i
g ia ce
o
ch a a
e . Wi hin he ac ion
i i ei
c e and
in he ne on memb ane.
ig de d c e con ol
incl ding ho gh and beha io . The e a e ba ic pa
ihi
o e en ion namel de d i e and a
. The ne on
h o gh ac i a ion f om o he ne on , info ma ion f om one ne on flo
h o gh a medi m called
of he ne on
ok
o o he ne on
a e. Thi info ma ion i in a chemical a e and an po ed o
o he ne on h o gh e
a
i e .A
chemical ignal o help c o
he
nap e gap and hen con e ed back o an elec ical ignal o
he ecei i g e
nap e medi m elec ical ignal a e con e ed o
.
Ne
A ne o an mi e i an endogeno
a
i e
b ance ha comm nica e he e l of he
info ma ion en f om he ending ne on o he po
nap ic cell. Thi
b ance ini ia e he
an mi ion of he info ma ion o imp l e o he ecei ing ne on. The e a e diffe en
ne o an mi e namel a i e e
e
a
i e , and ga
e
a
a
i e ,a i
a
i e , e ide
i e . Amine ne o an mi e fo e ample a e
e pon ible fo cond c ing ph iological f nc ion
pe
acid e
ch a a o al, leep, and eg la ion of blood
e. On he ame no e, amino acid ne o an mi e pe fo m mo of he e ci a o
inhibi o
f nc ion in he ne o
pe of
em.
and
PSY 340 WRITING ASSIGNMENT
QUESTION: WHAT IS A NEURON AND HOW DOES IT WORK?
DUE: NO LATER THAN SUN., 2/20 by 11:59 PM
UPLOAD as a .doc or .docx file to Blackboard
Note: This assignment can only be turned in via Blackboard; no other way is acceptable. Any late
papers for the first submission beyond 11:59 PM on Sun., 2/20 will not be accepted, unless there
is some sort of documented excuse that has been worked out with Professor Vandenbelt. You
must turn in submission #1 in order to be allowed to revise and turn in a paper for submission
#2.
Requirements:
➢ WRITE and UPLOAD to BLACKBOARD as a .DOCX, .DOC, or .PDF file from MS Word only
(do not use Apple “Pages”, the free substitute app for Word, Google Docs, or anything other than
MS Word).
➢ 2 PAGES MINIMUM; 3 PAGES MAXIMUM (Hint: lean more toward 3)
➢ DOUBLE SPACED; 1″ MARGINS; 12 POINT FONT TIMES NEW ROMAN
➢ ALL TERMS used CORRECTLY and BOLDED in your paper (Even if you use all of the terms,
but do not BOLD them, the paper is a No Pass)
This assignment is designed to help you organize and synthesize the material covered by the exams in
this class. Do not use anything other than your lecture notes and the text assigned for this class
(Watson & Breedlove, 2016). No other sources (e.g., other textbooks, online sites, etc.) should be
used. The 3rd page of these instructions has a list of terms from Chapters 13, 2, 3, and 4 of your
textbook that need to be included. You then need to write the paper with all of those important terms
discussed clearly, concisely, and correctly.
Your paper should be organized in the following way:
• Start by describing how we as humans develop, specifically how our brain develops (Ch. 4)
• Discuss the different types of cells that we develop (be sure to include glia as well as neurons;
Ch.1)
• Discuss particularly how neurons work in our bodies (ion movements, action potentials,
synapses; Ch. 2)
• End with discussing what neurotransmitters are and the functions of a few specific ones (see
end of terms list; Ch. 3)
Warning: Keeping this paper less than 3 pages will be difficult!
If your paper is…
Fewer than 2 pages: Your paper needs more detail
Over 3 pages: You are not quite writing concisely enough
1
This paper does not need to be in APA format (no citations, no reference section, etc.) and I’m not
looking for a masterpiece of literature! Spell check and correct your grammar please ☺. Do NOT copy
from the text or each other! Remember, this will be checked for plagiarism via on Blackboard.
Grading rubric: Graded Pass/No Pass; Pass = 100 points; No Pass = 0
PASS = 100 points
To be considered complete, you must include details from:
➢ Ch 13 = how the brain develops
➢ Ch 2 = types of cells (be sure to include glia as well as neurons)
➢ Ch 3 = how neurons work (ion movements, APs, synapses)
➢ Ch 4 = neurotransmitters
NO PASS = 0 points
Anything other than a .DOCX or .DOC file (your paper will be returned to you unread)
Fewer than 2 pages (your paper will be returned to you unread)
Greater than 3 pages (your paper will be returned to you unread)
“Cheating” with spacing, margins, or fonts such that there would not be 2-3 pages if it had been
done correctly (your paper will be returned to you unread)
➢ Excessive number of typos or grammatical, punctuation, and/or spelling errors
➢ Missing information from one or more chapters
➢
➢
➢
➢
*Note: After the first submission, your paper may receive a 50/100 which means that your paper is
ALMOST there, but needs a few more elements to make it 100/100. Perhaps you did not
synthesize information correctly, or used a term(s) incorrectly; your paper will include feedback and of
course you can always come see me in office hours ☺
2
TERMS CHECKLIST
PASS must include ALL the following terms (otherwise it is a NO PASS):
fertilization
cell membrane
lipid bilayer
implantation
cell nucleus
ion channels
zygote
mitochondria
potassium channel
blastula or blastocyst
ribosomes
equilibrium
ectoderm
axon hillock
sodium-potassium pump
mesoderm
axon
hyperpolarization
endoderm
myelin
depolarization
neural groove
nodes of Ranvier
graded response
neural tube
dendrites
all-or-none property
stem cells
axon terminals
threshold
ventricular zone
synapses
action potentials
radial cells (glia)
synaptic vesicles &
exocytosis
propagation
neurogenesis
presynaptic membrane
saltatory conduction
cell migration
postsynaptic membrane
absolute refractory period
cell differentiation
monopolar neurons
relative refractory period
synaptogenesis
bipolar neurons
voltage gated Na+ channel
neuronal cell death
multipolar neurons
voltage gated K+ channel
synapse rearrangement
polarization
voltage gated Ca++ channel
glia
ions
spatial & temporal
summation
microglia & macrophages
cations
EPSPs & IPSPs
3
phagocytic
anions
degradation
macroglia in CNS & PNS
intracellular fluid
reuptake
satellite cells
extracellular fluid
postsynaptic receptors
Schwann cells
sodium (Na+)
lock & key
oligodendrocytes
potassium (K+)
ligand
astrocytes
calcium (Ca++)
endogenous ligand
blood-brain barrier (BBB)
resting membrane potential
neurotransmitters
Golgi & Cajal
diffusion
acetylcholine
Neuron Doctrine
concentration gradient
dopamine
neurons
electrostatic pressure
serotonin
cell body (soma)
semi-permeable membrane
opioids
Terms you may list are highlighted in GREEN
4
Jane Doe, Writing Assignment – PSYC G250
In the beginning, fertilization occurs when sperm from the male fertilizes egg from the
female, and forms into a single-cell called a zygote. The zygote divides and forms into a mass of
one-hundred cells, or a blastocyst. The blastocyst migrates, enters the uterus, and in five days,
breaches uterine lining, hatching to implant into the uterine wall. In 1-2 weeks, the cell mass
separates into three layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The ectodermal layer
thickens and folds into itself forming the neural groove. In 2-8 weeks, the ridges of the neural
groove come together forming the neural tube; the interior becomes the ventricles and central
canal of the spinal cord and anterior forms all divisions and subdivisions of the brain. Cells that
line the neural tube form the ventricular zone, which contains stem cells that divide and form
the entire nervous system.
Stem cells are “undifferentiated” cells that divide by mitosis and can form many different
types of cells. The development of neurobiology has six stages: division (cell birth and
proliferation), migration, differentiation, synaptogenesis, cell death, and reorganization.
Radial cells, also known as radial glia, are stem cells that divide to form neurons and glia.
Microglia and macrophages are types of radial cells from the mesoderm that are small, and act
as the brain’s immune system. Following injury, glial cells become phagocytic, developing into
macrophages and cleaning up debris. The microglia in the PNS consist of small satellite cells,
which line the surface of the neurons and maintain chemical milieu, and Schwann cells, which
form myelin sheath on axons in the PNS. Macroglia in the CNS consist of large, star-shaped
cells called astrocytes, which assist with reuptake and breakdown of neurotransmitters, and
support cells that form the blood-brain barrier, and smaller cells called oligodendrocytes,
which form myelin sheath on axons in the CNS.
Camillo Golgi first discovered nerve cells, calling them an endless network of
Jane Doe, Writing Assignment – PSYC G250
continuous tubes. Ramon y Cajal formulated the “Neuron Doctrine”, stating that neurons are
actually contiguous and communicate information across “tiny gaps” (e.g. synapses). Neurons
come in three forms: monopolar, bipolar, and multipolar. Neurons are surrounded by a cell
membrane and contain a cell body (soma), nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, dendrites,
axon, and axon hillock. Dendrites extend from the soma to receive information, while the axon
hillock is at the base of the soma and acts as a calculator to sum inputs received from other
neurons. Information travels from the dendrites, toward the axon hillock, down the axon, and
eventually to the axon terminals in a simple, but complex process.
The neuron is polarized, or holds an electrical charge and is more negative on the inside
than outside. The cell membrane is made up of a lipid bilayer and surrounded by ions,
electrically charged molecules dissolved in the intracellular and extracellular fluid; anions
(e.g. chloride [Cl-]) are negatively charged, and cations (e.g. potassium [K+] and sodium
[Na+]) are positively charged. The cell membrane is semi-permeable, allowing certain
molecules may pass through; K+ moves freely, while Na+ can only pass under certain
conditions. The concentration and movement of ions, specifically K+, contributes to resting
membrane potential. K+ is more concentrated inside the cell and is pushed out through
diffusion (areas of high concentration to low concentration) down its concentration gradient.
However, since K+ is a cation and the inside of the cell is negative, electrostatic pressure pulls
K+ back in. The cell is at rest at -60mV, when K+ ions are at equilibrium, or when forces of
diffusion equal forces of electrostatic pressure. During this process, Na+ can leak into the cell
because both diffusion and electrostatic pressure pull it into the cell, but the sodium-potassium
pump prevents membrane potential going to “0” by exchanging two Na+ ions for three K+ ions.
In order for there to be an action potential (AP), the cell must depolarize, or become more
Jane Doe, Writing Assignment – PSYC G250
positive.
If the cell reaches threshold (-40 mV), an AP can occur. Cells receive EPSPs,
depolarizing stimuli, and IPSPs, hyperpolarizing stimuli. If the cell receives enough EPSPs,
either through spatial summation (stimulating multiple areas) or temporal summation
(stimulating the same area repeatedly overtime), it will reach threshold. APs do not have graded
responses, meaning stronger stimuli will not produce stronger APs. Rather, APs act according to
the all-or-none property, they either fire at the same strength, or they do not. Once threshold is
reached, voltage-gated Na+ channels open briefly and Na+ rushes into the cell. Then, voltagegated K+ channels open to push K+ out of the cell and help return the cell back to -60mV. The
AP begins at the axon hillock, and propagates, or jumps down the axon through myelin and
Nodes of Ranvier in a process called saltatory conduction. When the AP reaches the axon
terminal, voltage-gated calcium (Ca2+) channels open to allow exocytosis, which is when
synaptic vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane and spill neurotransmitters (NT) into the
synapse. After an AP, there is a period of absolute refractory where no AP can occur, followed
by a period of relative refractory where an AP can occur, but only if a strong stimulus received.
Once NTs are in the synapse, they are either degraded by enzymes, taken back into the
cell (reuptake), or bind to postsynaptic receptors. NTs are endogenous ligands, molecules
made within the body of a certain shape that bind to receptors of corresponding shape like a
“lock-and-key”, and react with different receptor subtypes. Cholinergic neurons contain
acetylcholine, which helps with muscle contraction. Dopaminergic neurons contain dopamine,
which is associated with mood and motor control. Serotonergic neurons contain serotonin,
which aids in mood, sleep states, & anxiety. Opioid peptides help with pain, reward, and
addictive behaviors; they can act as either NT or hormones and mimic morphine.
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
