The topic isROLE OF FUNGI IN MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The Role of Biotechnology in Climate
Change
Submitted in
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology
Compiled by
Surname
Initials
Ntombela
Pretorius
Shakoane
Mathabatha
Motshologane
AA
SP
MKG
MBP
OT
Student
Number
214664909
203008600
215728587
212383503
215377440
Signature
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Prof. T Regnier
6 April 2020
0
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
Page 3
2. Biodiesel and biofuel production and sources
Page 4
2.1.
First Generation Feedstock
Page 5
2.2.
Second Generation Feedstock
Page 5
2.3.
Third Generation Feedstock
Page 6
3. Implication of climate change on crop production
Page 7
4. Impact of crop production on the environment
Page 9
4.1.
Reduction in maintenance
Page 9
4.2.
Use of energy efficient farming
Page 9
4.3.
Reduced use of synthetic fertilizers
Page 10
5. Industrial Biotechnology and climate change
Page 10
5.1.
Food Industry
Page 11
5.2.
Tanning & leather Industry
Page 11
5.3.
Dye Industry
Page 11
5.4.
Textile Sector
Page 12
6. Conclusion
Page 12
7. References
Page 13
1
Abstract
This paper explores the potential of the biotechnology industry and its role in climate
change. It looks to highlight biotechnological innovations that could help advance
the agricultural sector whilst simultaneously mitigating the effects of climate change
on the environment as well as on crop production. It looks deeper into the use of
genetically modified organisms such as stress tolerant crop and the increased use of
nitrogen fixing microorganisms which result in high crop yields, reduction in the use
of synthetic fertilizers and a reduced carbon footprint from crop production.
The paper goes on to examine how the convergence of these technologies goes on
to reduce the effects of greenhouse gases and the challenges therein. It explores
biobased biotechnology solutions in different industrial fields and the need for an
integrated and strategic approach to allow industrial biotechnology to fulfil it’s
potential as a force for good in the struggle with climate change.
Biotechnology methods has been integral in aiding and solving various problems on
a global scale; from medical breakthroughs (creation of antibiotics), to improving
food systems.
Biotechnology can yet again be a key industry in solving the world’s current
predicament regarding climate change. The several branches of biotechnology all,
be it agricultural, industrial and chemical all have great potential in the reduction of
greenhouse gases and ultimately reverse the adverse effects of climate change.
2
1. Introduction
Climate change in IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) refers to a
change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by
changes in the mean and/ variability of its properties, and that persist for an extended
period, typically decades or longer (IPCC, 2011).
Climates are changing as a result of an increase in concentrations of greenhouse
gases (GHGs; mainly carbon dioxide CO2, methane CH4 and nitrous oxide N2O) in
the earth’s atmosphere (Schulze, 2016) and there has already been mounting
evidence that highlights just how much of a catastrophe climate change currently is to
the global environment.
Hundreds of millions of people could lose their lives and up to one million species
could become extinct if the average global temperature increases by more than 2 °C
(Parry M.). Currently the world relies on the use of fossil fuels such as petroleum (to
fuel most modes of transportation), coal and natural gas such as methane (which are
used in abundance to generate power that can be used for various things such as
generating electricity) but despite our reliance on the above, the use of fossil fuels
needs to be phased out as a global energy source, reason being not only because
they are finite resources but because the burning of these fossil fuels are major
contributors of the production of GHGs and essentially the major contributor to the
phenomenon of global climate change.
Other detrimental effects of climate change include a potential increase in sea level
and subsequent submerging of lowlands, deltas and islands, as well as changing of
weather patterns. It could adversely affect water supplies and agricultural productivity,
and the need to cut carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions to avoid harmful environmental
degradation has made the transition from conventional fossil fuels to alternative and
renewable resources a global priority (Mohee et al., 2008)
As new technologies are being developed to counter GHG emissions, industrial
biotechnology should be part of the technology toolkit. According to (Bang et al.,
2009), industrial or white biotechnology is one of the most promising new approaches
to pollution preventions, and cost reduction. Applications of white biotechnology can
contribute to meet the environmental objective to reduce GHG emissions by 20% in
3
2025. It involves the use of enzymes and microorganisms to make biobased products
in a diverse variety of industry sectors. Many countries now have bioenergy strategies
and targets. Besides biofuels, industrial biotechnology can contribute to climate
change mitigation through diverse products in the plastic and chemical sectors
(Nielsen, 2006). But in order to stop the effects of climate change, reducing the
emission of these gases is only one piece of the puzzle. In this paper we also look at
changing the agricultural sector by using certain genetically modified organisms to aid
in crop production and how using modern biotechnology such as genetically modified
stress tolerant and high yielding transgenic crops can be used an alternative to the
current food production industry.
2. Biodiesel or biofuel production and sources it can be
derived from.
The number one alternative for fossil fuels is the use of biodiesel. The production of
this renewable energy has received much attention over the years and was one of the
first alternative fuels to be known to the public.
Biodiesel refers to any diesel-
equivalent biofuel (i.e. energy-dense compounds produced by microbes, usually by
the degradation of plant materials.) made from renewable biological material, which
usually needs a special process to transform it into a fuel. Often, biodiesel is more
specifically defined as the monoalkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from the
chemical reaction (trans-esterification) of renewable feedstock, such as vegetable oil
or animal fats, and alcohol with or without a catalyst. Each biodiesel source should be
evaluated on its net benefit to society based on a full life-cycle analysis that includes,
among other factors, its effects on the net energy supply, the global food system,
greenhouse gas emissions, soil carbon and soil fertility, water and air quality and
biodiversity (Sills J., 2010). The total world biodiesel production was estimated to be
approximately 3.8 billion litres in 2005, with approximately 85% of its production in the
European Union.
Biodiesel has multiple desirable reasons why it makes for a great renewable energy
source, some of those reasons include:
•
It is a renewable fuel that could be sustainably supplied
4
•
It is highly biodegradable and has minimal toxicity
•
It is environmentally friendly, resulting in very low sculpture release and no net
increased release of carbon dioxide, aromatic compounds or other chemical
substances that are harmful to the environment (Khan S.A. et al, 2009)
•
It is better than petroleum-based diesel in terms of its lower combustion
emission profile, and it does not contribute to global warming because of its
closed carbon cycle
•
It can be used in existing diesel engines with little or no modification (Demirbas
A. et al, 2002)
•
It can be blended in any ratio with when added to regular diesel fuel in an
amount of 1–2% and can convert fuel with poor lubricating properties into an
acceptable fuel (Gerpan V., 2005); and
•
Finally, it can provide improved combustion over petroleum-based diesel
because of its high oxygen content (Gerpan V., 2005).
Biodiesel can be derived from multiple sources and below we look closely at feedstock
as a possible source.
2.1.
First generation feedstock:
This includes food crops such as rapeseed, soybeans, palm oil and sunflower; they
are classified as first generation feedstock because, more than 95% of this biodiesel
is made from edible oils (Brennan L. et al, 2010). However, this biodiesel is not
sustainable enough to be used as a permanent fix, reason being it will have a major
impact on the global food market and food security. Diverting food crops (whose oils
are vital for human consumption) to produce oil in large-scale production of biodiesel
could bring imbalance to the global food market (Gui M.M. et al, 2008), more so the
production of this type of biodiesel could lead to a long lasting negative impact on the
environment as it may require available arable land to support the production of
biodiesel.
2.2.
Second generation feedstock
This includes energy crops (jatropha), tobacco seed, salmon oil, waste cooking oils,
animal fats (beef tallow and pork lard) (Rattanaphra D., 2010) just to mention a few.
This biodiesel makes a great alternative for using edible oils because there is no
5
impact on the global food market as well as there are more efficient and more
environmentally friendly than first generation feedstock. Even though secondgeneration feedstocks do not typically affect the human food supply chain and can be
grown in wastelands, they are not abundant enough to be used as a permanent source
for energy/power generation on a global scale. Another disadvantage of biodiesel
derived from vegetable oils and animal fats is their relatively poor performance at cold
temperatures and with most animal fats containing a greater amount of saturated fatty
acids, trans-esterification becomes difficult and results in problems in the production
process (Canakci M.).
2.3.
Third generation feedstock
This biodiesel is derived from microalgae and has emerged as one of the most
promising alternative sources to lipids (fat) in biodiesel production because of their
high photosynthetic efficiency in producing biomass and their higher growth rates and
productivity compared to conventional crops (Mata T.M. et al, 2010). In addition to
their fast reproduction, they are easier to cultivate than many other types of plants and
can produce a higher yield of oil for biodiesel production. Microalgae production also
adds extra benefits, other than their intended use as an alternative renewable energy
source they can be used in producing by-products such as biopolymers, proteins,
carbohydrates and residual biomass (Brennan L. et al, 2010), which may be used as
feed or fertilizer as well as being able to fix carbon dioxide (CO 2) in the atmosphere
which facilitates the reduction of atmospheric CO 2 levels directly contributing to the
fight against climate change.
The below Figure 2.3.1 (Mata T.M. et al, 2010) indicates how efficient microalgae
production is compared to other feedstocks.
6
3. Implications of climate change on crop production and their
resolution through genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is one of modern agricultural biotechnology’s tools and it is based
on recombinant DNA technology which involves the alteration of the genetic makeup
of an organism (Kumar et al., 2015). Recombinant DNA technology makes use of
specific enzymes to cut, insert and alter fragments of DNA that contain one or more
genes of interest (Warf, 2014).
As previously mentioned climate change can affect the land and its agriculture in a
variety of ways, e.g, variations in annual rainfall, rise in average temperature, heat
waves, modification in weeds, pests or microbes, global change of atmospheric CO2
or increase in the ozone layer level and increases in sea level (Raza et al., 2019). The
effects of climate change can induce various abiotic and biotic stresses on plants (Gull
et al., 2019). Biotic stresses in plants refers to stressed induced by living organisms
such as parasites, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, virus etc. (Mehta, 2018) with
abiotic stresses referring to those that are imposed on the plant by environmental
conditions such as drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, and chemical toxicity
(Tesfahun, 2018). The effects of these stresses can limit and reduce productivity on
agricultural crops (Gull et al., 2019). It has been estimated that two-thirds of the yield
potential of major crops are routinely lost due to unfavourable environmental
conditions (Gill et al., 2010) so it is important that we can use biotechnological tools
such as genetic engineering globally to produce agricultural crop that are tolerant to
such environmental conditions.
7
Below Table 3.1.1 summarises some examples of genes that have been used in the
production of abiotic resistance in genetically modified crop.
Gene
Donor
Transgenic crop
MYB41
Arabidopsis thaliana
Arabidopsis thaliana
NF-YB1
Arabidopsis thaliana
Zea Mays
HARDY
Arabidopsis thaliana
Oryza Sativa
Tps
Yeast
Tobacco
ZAT12
Arabidopsis thaliana
Rice
RWC3
Rice
Rice
Coda
Bacteria
Rice, Tobacco
Arginine decarboxylase
Apple
Apple, pear
P5cs
Mothbean
Rice
OtsA and otsB
E. coli
Rice
ME-leaN4
Brassica napus
Lettuce
Cyanobacterium
Potato
APX+
Cotton
Cotton
FAD7
Arabidopsis
Tobacco
CUP1
Arabidopsis
Sunflower
MT
Brassica rapa
Arabidopsis
YCF1
Saccharomyces
Arabidopsis
Drought stress tolerance
Flooding stress tolerance
Salinity stress tolerance
Cold stress tolerance
Delta-12-acyl-lipid
desaturase
Heavy metal tolerance
cerevisiae
Table 3.1.1 Some examples of genes used in the development of abiotic resistance in
genetically modified (GM) crops. Source: (Mathur et al., 2017)
8
According to Warf (2014), there are 27 variations of genetically modified crops that are
planted commercially, so far and the total sale of biotech crops has reached
approximately US$ 133,3 billion in the year 2013 since its introduction in 1996 and the
yield gains have risen up to 441,4 million tons during this 18 year span (Mathur et al.,
2017).
4. Impact of crop production on the environment
Above we discussed how the use of genetically modified organisms can assist the
agricultural sector in fighting some of the effects of climate change but here we look
at some changes that can be made in crop production that will also greatly reduce
climate change and its effects such as reduction in maintenance, use of energy
efficient farming and reduced use of synthetic fertilizers.
4.1.
Reduction in maintenance
Planting crops need constant maintenance and produce a lot of greenhouse gasses
due to the use of equipment such as tractors. In order to reduce the amount of greenhouse gasses, one need to reduce the amount of maintenance required to ensure the
wellbeing of the crops.
By reducing the amount of maintenance required we can reduce the use of equipment
which in turn reduces the amount of fuels used to power the equipment. One way of
achieving this is using genetically modified crops as mentioned above. Genetically
modified crops that are resistant to biotic and abiotic stressors would not need as much
maintenance as regular crops (Fares, 2014).
The reduction of these greenhouse gas emissions in 2012 was equivalent to “removing
27 billion kg of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or equal to removing 11.9 million
cars from the road for one year” (Sarin R. et al., 2007)
4.2.
Use of Energy efficient farming
With the decrease in demand on fuels due to using different technologies which enable
the production of more fertile and resistant plants towards both biotic and abiotic
stress, alternative fuel sources can be explored. Production of biofuels such as those
mentioned earlier from both traditional and Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
9
crops such as oilseed, sugarcane and rapeseed will help reduce the carbon footprint
of crop production. Non edible oil-seed crops such as Jatropha tree can therefore be
purposeful and be produced for the sole use as biofuel (Treasury H.M., 2009) in the
farming industry.
4.3.
Reduced use of synthetic fertiliser
One other aspect that contribute to greenhouse gas production during crop production
is the use of synthetic fertilisers. When common soil bacteria interact with synthetic
fertilisers N2O are produced, contributing to greenhouse gasses. Ammonium chloride,
Ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate are examples of inorganic
fertilisers that are responsible for the formation and release of greenhouse gasses
(Brookes G. et al, 2009). Nitrogen fixing characteristics of Rhizobium inoculants were
improved by using genetic engineering and can be used as an alternative to synthetic
fertilizers. Furthermore, the use of non-leguminous plants to help to fix the nitrogen
levels in the ground decreases the need for synthetic fertilisers (Zahran H.H., 2001).
5. Industrial Biotechnology and Climate Change
Since the industrial revolution, economic growth has been linked with accelerating
negative environmental impact. Industrial biotechnology challenges this pattern and
has the potential to break the cycle of resource consumption by allowing for a
rethinking of traditional industrial processes. By providing a range of options for
competitive industrial performance in selected sectors, could enhance economic
growth, while at the same time save water, energy, raw materials and reduce waste
production. Industrial biotechnology based on renewable resources, can save energy
in production processes and significantly reduce CO 2 emissions.
Industrial biotechnology uses enzymes and microorganisms to make biobased
products in sectors as diverse as food, chemicals, detergents, healthcare, paper,
energy and textiles. Agricultural products, biomass and organic waste, including food
processing waste are effluents (also referred to as renewable raw materials) are
transformed into other substances, in the same way as crude oil is used as a feedstock
in the production of chemicals.
10
We have seen that almost all existing energy infrastructure and production processes
are largely based on fossil fuels, which result in high levels of GHG emissions. In a
biobased economy society is no longer wholly dependent on fossil fuels and industrial
raw materials. By contrast, industrial biotechnology avoids the use of fossil resources
as starting materials, but in some instances, it competes with edible feedstocks. This
issue can be solved by the introduction of second-generation biofuels using non-edible
biomass as a sole feedstock. Researchers predict the following biotechnology
applications have a high probability of reaching the market by 2030 (Marais, 2010).
5.1.
Food industry
Enzymes have been used in food manufacturing for hundreds of years, mainly based
on fermentation by microorganisms. They are being used in baking, fruit and vegetable
processing, brewing, wine making, cheese manufacturing and meat processing. The
applications of enzymes in the food industry are advantageous mainly due to their
impact on processing conditions in food manufacturing plants, where enzymes use
may result in savings of energy and chemicals. A few examples of enzyme technology
to lessen GHG emissions are, degumming of soybean oil using phospholipase and
reduced waste of bread using maltogenic amylase (DuPont et al., 2008).
5.2.
Tanning and leather industry
Enzymes have been used in the tanning industry for centuries because they are
efficient in degrading protein and fat. Soaking enzymes reduce the required
soaking time, the surfactant and soda requirements during the tanning process.
Reduced soaking time leads to electricity savings. Enzymes that remove the hair
during the tanning process reduce the sulphide requirements for the process.
Therefore, the use of enzymes in this industry contribute positively in global
warming (Nielsen, 2006).
5.3.
Dye industry
The production of dyes through environmentally friendly processes as well as
through wastewater treatment, enzymes can help to reduce the potential
environmental impact of dyes. Bioprocesses to produce biobased colourants have
been developed and are used as an alternative to traditional chemical synthesis.
While the creation of chemical dyes requires temperature up to 70-90 ˚C in harsh
11
conditions, the enzymatic synthesis of these colourants can be obtained at ambient
temperature, under mild conditions. In this industry, enzymatic processes could
help to reduce CO2 emissions and toxicity towards the environment (Marais, 2010).
5.4.
Textile sector
Enzymes have been used in detergents since the 1960s and since then have
helped to reduce the amount of detergent released into the environment, as well
as decreasing the energy needed to do laundry. In fact, detergent enzymes
represent one of the largest and most successful applications of modern industrial
biotechnology, according to studies conducted by Biopreffered.
6. Conclusion
It is evident that one of the biggest contributors to climate change is the emission of
GHGs from several agricultural and industrial processes. It is therefore important that
any kind of biotechnological interventions targets these sectors and applies technology
that allows processes to move away from the use of fossil fuels. Either by providing
alternative sources of energy such as first, second or third generation feedstock to
make biofuels or by reducing the need to use these fossil fuels by the genetic
modification of crops to become more resistant to biotic and abiotic stressors so that
less energy is required to continue processes in agricultural crops or the agricultural
sector as a whole. But it is also important to note that all sectors of industry can in
one way, or another apply biotechnology to reduce emissions, to reduce by products
and waste products that may direct or indirect contributors to climate change. Making
microorganisms and their enzymes an important point of study in the industrial
biotechnology sector.
12
7. References
Amin, S., Review on biofuel oil and gas production processes from microalgae.
Antolin G., Tinaut, F.V. & Briceno, Y. (2002). Optimisation of biodiesel production
by sunflower oil transesterification. Bioresour Technol
Bang, H., Stein, G. L, & Mann, O. (2009). Industrial biotechnology “More than a
green fuel in a dirty economy?”
Biofuels from microalgae – a review of
Brennan, L. & Owende, P. (2010).
technologies for production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and coproducts. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews; 14:557–77.
Canakci, M. The potential of restaurant waste lipids as biodiesel feedstocks.
Demirbas, A. (2002). Diesel fuel from vegetable oil via transesterification and soap
pyrolysis. Energy Sources; 24:835–41.
DuPont, G., Lewis, H. L., & Mckinsey, E. (2008). Biofuels and food. P. 84.
Http://bio4eu.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents/Bio4EUTask2Annexindustrialproduction.pdf
Eise, J., & Foster, K. (2018). How to feed the world. How to Feed the World.
https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-885-5
Gerpan, V. (2005). Biodiesel processing and production. Fuel Process Technol
286:1097–1107.
Gill, S. S., & Tuteja, N. (2010). Polyamines and abiotic stress tolerance in plants.
Plant Signaling and Behavior, 5(1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.5.1.10291
Gui, M.M., Lee, K.T. & Bhatia, S. (2008). Feasibility of edible oil vs. non-edible oil
vs. waste edible oil as biodiesel feedstock. Energy; 33:1646–53.
Gull, A., Ahmad Lone, A., & Ul Islam Wani, N. (2019). Biotic and Abiotic Stresses
in
Plants.
Abiotic
and
Biotic
Stress
in
Plants,
1–6.
https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85832
Hassan M.A., Yacob, S. & Ghani, B.A. (2005). Utilization of biomass in Malaysiapotential for CDM business. University Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Biotechnology
13
IPCC. (2011). Climate change science – the status of climate change science
today. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9388.1992.tb00046.x
Khan, S.A., Rashmi, Hussain, M.Z., Prasad, S. & Banerjee, U.C. 2009. Prospects
of biodiesel production from microalgae in India. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews; 13:2361–72.
Khan, M.A., Khan, M.Z., Zaman, K. & Arif, M. 2014. Global estimates of energygrowth nexus: Application of seemingly unrelated regressions. Renewable and
Sustain Energy Review; 9:63–71
Kumar, S., Bansode, R., & Malav, M. K. (2015). International Journal of Applied
And Pure Science and Agriculture.
Lang, X., Dalai, A.K., Bakhshi, N.N., Reaney, M.J. & Hertz PB. (2001). Preparation
and characterization of biodiesels from various bio-oils. Bioresour Technol; 80: 53–
62.
Mehta, K. (2018). Xournals Effects of Abiotic and Biotic Stress on the Plant
Xournals. 01(01), 5–9.
Mohee, C. K., Moosha, L., Peters, M. (2008). Waste management. Vol 28, P. 16241629.
Marais, M. (2010). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Renewable fuel
standard program (RFS2) Regulatory Impact Analysis, EPA -410-R-10-006, P.
426. www.epa.gove/otaq/renewablefuels/420r10006.pdf
Mata, T.M., Martins, A.A. & Caetano, N.S. (2010). Microalgae for biodiesel
production and other applications: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Review; 14:217-32.
Mathur, V., Javid, L., Kulshrestha, S., & Mandal, A. (2017). World Cultivation of
Genetically Crops : Opportunities and Risks Chapter 2 World Cultivation of
Genetically
Modified
Crops :
Opportunities
and
Risks
(Issue
July).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3
Nielsen, H. (2006). Environmental assessment of enzyme application in the
tanning industry. Leather International (August/September 2006), P. 18-24.
14
Parry, M. Millions at Risk, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East
Anglia, Norwich.
Rattanaphra, D. & Srinophakun, P. (2010). Biodiesel production from crude
sunflower oil and crude jatropha oil using immobilized lipase. J Chem Eng Jpn;
43(1):104–8.
Raza, A., Razzaq, A., Mehmood, S. S., Zou, X., Zhang, X., & Lv, Y. (2019). Impact
of Climate Change on Crops Adaptation and Strategies to Tackle Its Outcome : A
Review. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8020034
Schulze, R. (2016). Agriculture and Climate Change in South Africa: On
Vulnerability, Adaptation and Climate Smart Agriculture A Selection of Extracts.
HANDBOOK ON ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE FOR FARMERS,
OFFICIALS AND OTHERS IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR OF SOUTH
AFRICA C.
Sills,
J.
(2010).
Science
discussion.
Vol
326.
Available
at:
http://www.sciencemag.org [accessed March 2010].
Tesfahun, W. (2018). Climate change mitigation and adaptation through
biotechnology approaches : A review. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1), 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.151283
Vicente, G., Martinez, M. & Aracil, J. (2004). Integrated biodiesel production: a
comparison of different homogeneous catalysts systems. Bioresour Technol;
92:297–305.
15
ADVANCE DIPLOMA (IPG117V) / ACCADEMIC WRITING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY II
Rubric: Assignment 1 and 2
Satisfactory
Below standard
Inadequate
Descriptors
(positive)
Good
Criteria
Date:
Excellent
Student name and number:
5
4
3
2
1
Descriptors
(negative)
WORK 1
Introduction
Clear, two sentences and presenting the topic.
Major findings
The correct technologies were identified and the answer
is complete with adequate scientific detail.
Technologies were compared and contrasted. The
science and technology were discussed in adequate
detail, demonstrating understanding and insight.
Well defined. Give the reader a clear message to go
home with.
Conclusion
30
20
15
10
5
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
Not introducing the topic.
Incorrect technologies were identified and/or the answer
is incomplete and/or lacks scientific detail. Facts were
provided, but not compared and contrasted. To narrow
and unfocused.
Unclear and not related to the topic.
WORK 2
Definition
Adequate descriptive of the important points
examples
Two well defined conclusions
Total (50 marks)
Signature
Comments
Lacks important points, and they are not adequately
linked to the context.
Examples not provided and/or incorrectly written.
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
