Melanie (Discussion Reply 1)
Describe causes of Upper respiratory infections and drug therapy
Upper respiratory infections are infections that affect the nose, throat, and sinuses. Upper
Respiratory Infections are common and can be caused by many viruses or bacteria. The most
common viruses are rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and influenza. These viruses are spread
through droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Bacterial Upper
Respiratory Infections are less common, but they can cause a more serious illness. Streptococcus
Pneumonia and Hemophilus Influenzae are the most common bacteria that cause bacterial Upper
Respiratory Infections (Arcangelo, et al., 2017) Symptoms of Upper Respiratory Infections
include runny nose, sore throat, coughing, and sneezing. Bacterial Upper Respiratory Infections
are more common to cause fever, headache, and body aches. Treatment for viral Upper
Respiratory Infections is usually supportive to help alleviate symptoms such as pain relievers,
decongestants, antihistamines, and over the counter cough suppressants as there is no specific
treatment. However, the bacterial kind can be treated with antibiotics.
Discuss triggers of asthma and treatment options
The most common triggers of asthma include allergens, exercise, cold air, viral infections,
certain medications, and strong emotions. Pollen, dust, and pet dander are the most common
allergens. The flu and colds have been known to trigger asthma as well as medications like beta
blockers and aspirin, and lastly breathing in polluted air. Treatment for asthma includes
bronchodilators which relax the muscles in the airway, making it easier to breathe, and
corticosteroids which reduce inflammation in the airways also making it easier to breathe.
Discuss corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are medications used to reduce many kinds of inflammation. They are produced
by the adrenal glands, but they are also made synthetically for different types of treatment as
needed (Ramamoorthy, & Cidlowski 2017). Corticosteroids help treat conditions like asthma,
allergies, arthritis, lupus, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, skin conditions such as
eczema and psoriasis, and cancer. They work by blocking chemicals in the body that cause
inflammation. They can be taken by mouth, inhaled, injected, or applied topically.
Describe chronic bronchitis and treatment options
Chronic bronchitis is a lung condition that can cause narrowing of the airways as well as
inflammation. Chronic Bronchitis is a long-term illness, and it can take a toll on the body as well
as on the completion of day-to-day activities. Chronic Bronchitis makes it difficult to breathe,
especially during exercise and activities that cause exertion. Exposure to irritants for a long
amount of time is known to be the most common cause. These irritants include things such as
cigarette smoke, dust, and air pollution. This causes the airways to become irritated and damages
them making them more susceptible to inflammation. The common symptoms of chronic
bronchitis include coughing that produces sputum, wheezing, tightness of the chest, shortness of
breath, frequently getting sick or colds, and fatigue. Treatment for chronic bronchitis includes the
use of an inhaler during an attack, and some more severe cases may even require daily
medications to prevent exacerbations. The two main types of medication used to treat chronic
bronchitis include bronchodilators and corticosteroids to relax and reduce muscle inflammation.
References
Arcangelo, P. V., Peterson, M. A., Wilbur, V., & Reinhold, A. J. (2017). Pharmacotherapeutics
for Advanced Practice: A practical approach (4th Ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters
Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins American.
Ramamoorthy, S., & Cidlowski, J. A. (2016). Corticosteroids. Rheumatic Disease Clinics of
North America, 42(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rdc.2015.08.002Links to an external site.
Sandea (Discussion Reply 2)
Causes of Upper Respiratory Infections and Drug Therapy
Upper respiratory infections (URIs), pathologically rooted in viral etiologies
predominantly encompassing rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, adenoviruses, and influenza
viruses, primarily target the upper respiratory tract, including the nasal passages,
pharynx, and larynx. These infections are transmitted through inhalation of infectious
respiratory droplets or fomites, subsequently resulting in disease transmission (Thomas
& Bomar, 2022). The therapeutic paradigm for URIs pivots toward antiviral drug
intervention when specific viral agents can be identified. Antiviral agents, typified by
oseltamivir (Tamiflu) for influenza and remdesivir (Veklury) for select coronaviruses, act
by impeding viral replication, thereby attenuating symptoms and curtailing the duration
of illness.
However, the absence of specific antiviral treatments for the majority of URIs
necessitates a symptomatic approach. Over-the-counter (OTC) medications,
encompassing decongestants (e.g., pseudoephedrine), antihistamines (e.g., loratadine),
and analgesics (e.g., acetaminophen), are deployed to address congestion, sneezing, and
fever (Thomas & Bomar, 2022). Notably, cough suppressants, housing
dextromethorphan, are enlisted for refractory cough management, albeit judicious
application in pediatrics is paramount. Antibiotics, owing to their inefficacy against viral
URIs, are judiciously prescribed solely when secondary bacterial infections manifest.
Triggers of Asthma and Treatment Options
Asthma, characterized by persistent airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness
culminating in clinical manifestations of wheezing, dyspnea, cough, and chest tightness,
is underpinned by multifarious triggers. These triggers encompass allergens (e.g., pollen,
dust mites), respiratory infections, irritants (e.g., smoke, pollution), physical exertion, and
psychosocial stressors (Sandeep Sharma et al., 2019). Therapeutic stratagem in asthma
mandates the identification and attenuation of these triggers, concomitant with the
implementation of pharmacological interventions.
Treatment in asthma stratifies into the domains of reliever and controller medications.
Short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs), typified by albuterol, orchestrate rapid
bronchodilation via beta-2 adrenergic receptor stimulation, eliciting relaxation of airway
smooth muscle. Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), such as fluticasone, long-acting betaagonists (LABAs), exemplified by salmeterol, and leukotriene modifiers (e.g., montelukast)
serve as cornerstones in the controller armamentarium. ICS mitigate airway
inflammation, LABAs deliver sustained bronchodilation, while leukotriene modifiers
modulate leukotriene-mediated inflammation (Sandeep Sharma et al., 2019). Intractable
asthma mandates biologic therapies, like omalizumab, to target specific immunological
pathways.
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids, which belong to a pharmacological category of synthetic analogs that
closely resemble the naturally occurring hormone cortisol, exhibit a strong antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive character (Hodgens & Sharman, 2020). Their
mechanism of action extends across a wide spectrum of medical conditions, embracing
asthma, allergic maladies, autoimmune disorders, and diverse inflammatory pathologies.
In the sphere of respiratory disorders, particularly asthma, corticosteroids are
operationalized via diverse routes, comprising oral, intravenous, and inhalational modes.
Inhalational corticosteroids (ICS) are the linchpin of asthma therapy, primarily ascribed to
their potent anti-inflammatory attributes, orchestrating the amelioration of airway
inflammation and the consequent mitigation of asthma exacerbations. Systemic
corticosteroids, administered through oral or intravenous routes, are reserved for acute
exacerbations and refractory presentations.
It is crucial to exercise caution when employing corticosteroids, considering the potential
detrimental consequences that may arise from their extended or high-dose usage. These
sequelae encompass an augmented susceptibility to infections, osteoporosis, metabolic
perturbations typified by weight gain and diabetes, mood alterations, and cutaneous
atrophy (Hodgens & Sharman, 2020). Healthcare providers conduct a meticulous
benefit-risk assessment to optimize corticosteroid therapy, earnestly endeavoring to
prescribe the lowest efficacious dosage and curtail the requisite duration to rectify the
underlying pathology.
Chronic Bronchitis and Treatment Options
Chronic bronchitis is a condition that falls under the broader category of chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is characterized by prolonged inflammation of
the airways, increased production of mucus, and a persistent, intermittent cough. The
clinical definition of chronic bronchitis requires the symptoms to persist for at least three
months per year for two consecutive years (Dotan et al.,2019). Smoking is the
preeminent instigating factor, with environmental irritants such as air pollutants
constituting a contributory etiological stratum.
Management of chronic bronchitis articulates a multifaceted approach, underpinned by
the twin pillars of symptom palliation and malady progression mitigation. Smoking
cessation stands as the cardinal intervention, as persistent tobacco use perpetuates
disease accrual. Bronchodilators, spanning short-acting and long-acting iterations,
actuate relaxation of airway smooth muscles, ushering enhanced airflow dynamics.
Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are a valuable addition to the range of treatment options
available, since they help to reduce airway inflammation, particularly in instances that are
advanced or experiencing exacerbation. Pulmonary rehabilitation is a multifaceted
program that combines scheduled physical activity, educational modules, and respiratory
treatment procedures. This program plays a crucial role in improving lung function and
enhancing the overall quality of life (Dotan et al.,2019). In scenarios marked by severe
hypoxemia, supplementation with supplemental oxygen ensues as a therapeutic adjunct.
Surgical interventions, typified by lung volume reduction surgery or lung transplantation,
beckon for cases refractory to conventional therapies.
References
Dotan, Y., So, J. Y., & Kim, V. (2019). Chronic bronchitis: where are we now?. Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases: Journal of the COPD Foundation, 6(2), 178.
Hodgens, A., & Sharman, T. (2020). Corticosteroids. PubMed; StatPearls
Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554612/Links to an external site.
Sandeep Sharma, Hashmi, M. F., & Chakraborty, R. K. (2019). Asthma Medications.
Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531455/Links
to an external site.
Thomas, M., & Bomar, P. A. (2022). Upper Respiratory Tract Infection. Nih.gov;
StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532961/Links to an
external site.
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