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10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190127
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006. 57:401–21
doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190127
c 2006 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved
Copyright
First published online as a Review in Advance on August 11, 2005
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PERSONALITY AND THE PREDICTION OF
CONSEQUENTIAL OUTCOMES
Daniel J. Ozer and Verónica Benet-Martı́nez
Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521;
email: daniel.ozer@ucr.edu, veronbm@mail.ucr.edu
Key Words
individual differences, traits, life outcomes, consequences
■ Abstract Personality has consequences. Measures of personality have contemporaneous and predictive relations to a variety of important outcomes. Using the Big Five
factors as heuristics for organizing the research literature, numerous consequential relations are identified. Personality dispositions are associated with happiness, physical
and psychological health, spirituality, and identity at an individual level; associated
with the quality of relationships with peers, family, and romantic others at an interpersonal level; and associated with occupational choice, satisfaction, and performance,
as well as community involvement, criminal activity, and political ideology at a social
institutional level.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Happiness and Subjective Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spirituality and Virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Health and Longevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Psychopathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Concept and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INTERPERSONAL OUTCOMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peer and Family Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Romantic Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SOCIAL/INSTITUTIONAL OUTCOMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Occupational Choice and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Political Attitudes and Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volunteerism and Community Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criminality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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INTRODUCTION
What makes a personality characteristic important? While theory may direct attention to some variables, and factor analytic analyses of trait terms and measures might suggest other variables, the ultimate test of any individual difference
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personality characteristic is its implicative meaning. Does the construct help us
understand what people want, say, do, feel, or believe? Although personality characteristics have the capacity to predict individual differences in behavior within
circumscribed laboratory contexts, such results are largely of theoretical interest
unless the specific situation is one of compelling importance. But certain life outcomes and events are widely recognized as important—important for individuals
and important for the society in which they live. Successful prediction of such consequential outcomes is a demonstration of the practical importance of personality
that demands attention, and any successful theory of personality must account for
those personality differences that have consequential implications.
Recent emphases in personality research have included personality structure,
personality process, and personality stability and change (see, for example Caspi
et al. 2005, Cervone 2005). Each of these topics has been a core concern of personality psychology throughout its history. But these topics do not directly address
what we understand to be the source of abiding interest in individual differences
in character and temperament since antiquity. Personality matters, not just in ways
that interest the differential psychologist or those attached to a “romantic” conception of human nature (Hofstee & Ten Berge 2004), but also in ways that matter
to most people and policy makers.
There is not and probably never will be some final list of important life outcomes.
There will always be disagreement about what makes an outcome consequential or
important, and such disagreement will not be resolved by new data or advances in
theory. Beliefs about what are important life outcomes are not simply value-laden,
but are constitutive of values. So we make no claim that all of the outcomes we
examine will be regarded as universally important, or that we have included all of
the important outcomes that might be nominated. Rather, we suggest that most of
our readers will find most of the outcomes we discuss to be of consequence in their
own lives. We assert, without providing evidence, that most people care about their
own health and well being, care about their marital relationships, and care about
success and satisfaction in their career. These may not be outcomes understood as
universally important across time and culture, but neither are they concerns unique
to our own venue of southern California at the start of the twenty-first century.
What personality characteristics might be used to forecast consequential life
outcomes, and what characteristics might best serve to enable a useful summary
of the current literature? Personality psychology is now in the fortunate position
to offer the same answer to both questions: The broad superordinate dimensions
(extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness or intellect) of the Five Factor Model of Personality (John & Srivastava 1999) are now
widely used in the personality and prediction literature, and studies that utilize different dimensions often reference these dimensions of the Big Five model. Of the
many different kinds of units used in personality psychology (Hooker & McAdams
2003), trait dimensions, by virtue of their context independence and noncontingent
nature, should be most useful for predicting the multiply determined outcomes that
arise from the natural aggregation of acts and events as they occur through time
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PERSONALITY AND PREDICTION
403
and across situations. More contingent and context-specific units may well be required to understand the mechanisms by which traits and outcomes are related;
but that is not the present task. Alternatively, there is much to be said for the
use of narrow traits and more focused predictor variables (Paunonen et al. 2003).
From the perspective of maximizing accuracy in prediction, using multiple, narrow
trait measures is likely to be more effective than using fewer broader measures.
But there is no consensus about what might constitute even the beginning of a
comprehensive list of narrow traits. Ideally, prediction would utilize a consistent
set of broad superordinate dimensions (like the Big Five) plus whatever narrow
predictors provided incremental validity for specific outcomes. Identifying narrow
predictors for specific outcomes with incremental validity above the Big Five as
a criterion is a research endeavor only now really getting underway. There is yet
another reason to focus on the prediction of outcomes from the Big Five: Further
refinement of these factors might best be pursued by attending to the structure of
the external correlates of the factors (as Gangestad & Snyder 2000 show for the
case of self-monitoring) rather than solely on the structure of the factor indicators.
In our review of the literature, we characterize three different types of outcomes: Individual, interpersonal, and social/institutional. By individual outcomes,
we mean those outcomes that can be manifested by an individual outside of a
social context, in contrast to interpersonal outcomes that inherently involve other
individuals. Moreover, this involvement is personal in a sense: It generally matters
who the other is. By social/institutional outcomes, we mean more impersonal, organizational, and sometimes, societal-level processes involving interactions with
more generalized others. These distinctions are as much a convenience for organizing a vast literature as they are a claim about the structure of consequential life
outcomes.
INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
By individual outcomes, we mean those that do not inherently depend upon a social
process in order to define or give meaning to the outcome variable. Physical health
and psychopathology are routinely understood as individual outcomes, while the
inclusion here of happiness, spirituality, and virtue reflects the growing influence
of positive psychology. Although these variables might be understood as features
of personality rather than outcomes influenced by personality, we would argue that
conscientiousness (to choose the most difficult trait for our view) as a virtue and
conscientiousness as a trait are not quite the same things, though they clearly are
related. Someone might be conscientious (in the trait sense) for purely instrumental
purposes, and this would not constitute a virtue under at least some conceptions
of that term.
Identity and self-concept, understood as outcomes, provide the greatest challenge to this kind of organizational scheme. The role of the individual, important others, and the larger social environment most certainly play a part in the
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development of self and identity; but ultimately, we believe that individuals experience aspects of their identity as a part of themselves, and so we include identity
as an individual outcome.
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Happiness and Subjective Well-Being
Few topics have attracted as much recent attention in personality psychology as
the study of subjective well-being (SWB), persons’ evaluations of their own lives
(Diener et al. 1999). SWB includes both a cognitive component, such as a judgment
of one’s life satisfaction (Diener et al. 1985), and an affective component that includes the experience of positive and absence of negative emotions (Larsen 2000).
Two robust conclusions from studies in this area are that personality dispositions
are strong predictors of most components of SWB (see Diener & Lucas 1999 for a
review), and demographic and contextual factors, including age, sex, marital status, employment, social class, and culture, are only weakly to moderately related
to SWB (Diener et al. 1999, Ryan & Deci 2001).
Studies trying to unpack the link between personality dispositions and SWB
mainly point to the relations between certain largely genetic, affective/cognitive
traits related to neuroticism and extraversion (e.g., positive and negative affect, optimism, self-esteem) and the way individuals appraise and react to environmental
rewards and punishments (DeNeve & Cooper 1998). Specifically, individuals high
in extraversion and low in neuroticism tend to see events and situations in a more
positive light, are less responsive to negative feedback, and tend to discount opportunities that are not available to them. Individual differences in conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and openness to experience are less strongly and consistently associated with SWB, mostly because these traits sources reside in “rewards in the
environment” (Diener & Lucas 1999). In summary, SWB is strongly predicted by
personality traits that are largely a function of temperament (i.e., extraversion and
neuroticism) and moderately predicted by personality dispositions significantly
driven by environmental influences (conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience).
Recent cross-cultural studies of SWB (Benet-Martı́nez & Karakitapoglu-Aygün
2003, Kwan et al. 1997, Schimmack et al. 2002) shed light on some possible moderator and mediator variables in the relation between personality factors and SWB.
First, the links between both extraversion and neuroticism and SWB are moderated by culture. In individualist societies like the United States, where pleasure and
positive mood are highly emphasized and valued, hedonic balance (i.e., the ratio of
positive to negative affect) is a particularly strong predictor of SWB (Schimmack
et al. 2002). Secondly, across cultures, the links between the Big Five and SWB are
largely mediated by intra- and interpersonal esteem evaluations. Specifically, selfesteem appears to be a powerful mediator of the influence of extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness on SWB, whereas relational esteem (i.e., satisfaction
with relationships with family and friends) mediates the influence of agreeableness
and extraversion on SWB (Benet-Martı́nez & Karakitapoglu-Aygün 2003, Kwan
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et al. 1997). Although the relative weights of self-esteem and relationship harmony
in predicting SWB vary across cultures (e.g., self-esteem is a uniquely important
predictor in Western cultures), the weights of each of the Big Five dimensions
on self-esteem and relationship harmony seem to be cross-culturally equivalent
(Benet-Martı́nez & Karakitapoglu-Aygün 2003, Kwan et al. 1997).
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Spirituality and Virtues
There is very little research directly investigating the relation between personality
dispositions and variables referring to religious or spiritual concerns. This lack
of attention to spiritual matters in personality psychology is puzzling for two
reasons, as described by Emmons (1999): First, personality psychologists such as
Allport and Murphy were among the first to study religion and spirituality from a
psychological perspective. Despite this early interest in spirituality, the topic fell
out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as various controversies flourished. Second,
personality psychology’s neglect of spirituality has occurred in the context of a
discipline centrally concerned with understanding the whole person, a concern
that undoubtedly involves understanding what is meaningful to the person and
how this meaning is experienced as bringing growth and transcendence to one’s
life. Emmons (1999) argues that spiritual and religious goals and practices are not
only a distinctive element of a person’s beliefs and behaviors; for many, religious
beliefs and practices may be a central theme of their identity.
Piedmont (1999, 2004) developed a measure of spiritual transcendence, with
universality, connectedness, and prayer fulfillment subscales, that is unrelated to
the traits of the Five Factor Model and has incremental validity in predicting posttreatment symptoms and coping resources in an outpatient substance abuse sample.
MacDonald (2000) also explored the links between basic personality traits and spiritual concerns and behaviors. Five distinct components are identified and described
by MacDonald: cognitive orientation (perceptions and attitudes regarding spirituality), experiential/phenomenological (mystical, transcendental, and transpersonal
experiences), existential well-being (a sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience
regarding one’s existence), paranormal beliefs (including ESP and other paranormal phenomena), and religiousness (religious practices). These five components
are differentially related to the Big Five personality constructs but are not subsumed
by them. In particular, the religiousness and cognitive orientation components were
most notably predicted by agreeableness and conscientiousness. Not surprisingly,
the experiential/phenomenological and paranormal components were predicted by
openness, while existential well-being was strongly predicted by extraversion and
low neuroticism.
Recent theoretical work on the classification and delineation of core character
strengths and virtues—which can be grouped in terms of their relevance to wisdom,
courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence (Peterson & Seligman
2002)—convincingly relates most of these attributes to different sets of personality
dispositions. Clearly, certain traits facilitate or impede the development of specific
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strengths and virtues (e.g., agreeableness facilitates compassion, conscientiousness
facilitates perseverance, openness fosters creativity), while at the same time the
cultivation of these virtues consolidates the very same personality dispositions
from which these virtues sprang. Although most of the aforementioned personalityvirtue links have yet to be examined empirically, the following virtues have been
shown to have clear associations with personality: gratitude (extraversion and
agreeableness; McCullough et al. 2002), forgiveness (agreeableness and openness;
Thompson et al. 2005), inspiration (extraversion and openness; Thrash & Elliot
2004), and humor (low neuroticism and agreeableness; Cann & Calhoun 2001).
Physical Health and Longevity
Personality traits have a stable and cumulative effect on both the health and length
of individuals’ lives (Caspi et al. 2005). With regard to longevity, studies show
that positive emotionality (extraversion) and conscientiousness predict longer lives
(Danner et al. 2001, Friedman et al. 1995), and hostility (low agreeableness)
predicts poorer physical health (e.g., cardiovascular illness) and earlier mortality (Miller et al. 1996). The relation between neuroticism and health and longevity
is more complex, given that some studies support an association between neuroticism and increased risk of actual disease, whereas others show links with illness
behavior only (Smith & Spiro 2002). The link between personality and health
may reflect three different though overlapping processes (Contrada et al. 1999).
First, personality traits are associated with factors that cause disease. The hostility
component of low agreeableness (i.e., anger, cynicism, and mistrust) is associated
with sympathetic nervous system activation that is in turn associated with coronary artery disease (Smith & Spiro 2002). Whether personality has a causal role
or whether the association is spurious remains unclear (Caspi et al. 2005). Second,
personality may lead to behaviors that protect or diminish health. Extraversion is
associated with more numerous social relationships and greater social support, both
of which are positively correlated with health outcomes (Berkman et al. 2000).
Various unhealthy habits and behaviors including smoking, improper diet, and
lack of exercise are negatively correlated to conscientiousness (Bogg & Roberts
2004, Hampson et al. 2000). Last, personality traits are related to the successful
implementation of health-related coping behaviors (David & Suls 1999, Scheier
& Carver 1993) and adherence to treatment regimens (Kenford et al. 2002). The
increasing evidence for these three personality-health processes is clarifying the
particular health outcomes associated with particular traits (Caspi et al. 2005):
Agreeableness (e.g., hostility) seems to be most directly associated with the disease processes, conscientiousness (e.g., low impulse control) is clearly implicated
in health-risk behaviors, and neuroticism (e.g., vulnerability and rumination) seems
to contribute to disease by shaping reactions to illness.
Finally, in contrast with the more traditional medical approach to personality
and health, which tends to focus on “negative” traits such as anxiety, hostility, and impulsivity, positive psychology research informs us about personality
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traits that define resiliency (e.g., optimism, self-esteem, creativity), predict health,
and represent important resources for the individual and society (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi 2000). There is growing evidence that the positive emotions and
dispositions subsumed by the extraversion dimension lead to improved coping and
the development of psychological skills and resources (Fredrickson & Joiner 2002).
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Psychopathology
The previously described links between personality and SWB are not sufficient
for understanding the relation between personality and psychopathology (e.g.,
personality disorders, clinical depression, and schizophrenia). This is so because
SWB is not synonymous with mental or psychological health (Diener et al. 1999).
Some delusional individuals may feel happy and satisfied with their lives, and yet
we would not say that they possess mental health.
Recent research demonstrates strong links between the personality dispositions
and both Axis I and II psychological disorders. Specifically, substance abuse disorders are largely predicted by higher openness and lower conscientiousness (Trull
& Sher 1994). Anxiety disorders are primarily predicted by higher neuroticism,
and depression is mostly linked to neuroticism and low extraversion (Trull & Sher
1994). Associations between personality traits and Axis II disorders are even more
evident given the growing prevalence of dimensional conceptualizations of personality disorders. Dimensional models of personality disorders suggest that they
may be understood as extreme expressions of personality traits (Trull & Durrett
2005). It is apparent that personality disorders have substantial associations with
the five factors; neuroticism has the strongest relationship with personality disorders, whereas openness to experience has only a modest relationship.
Self-Concept and Identity
While many psychologists would understand self-concept and identity to be an
integral part of personality, how one characterizes oneself, the groups one belongs to, and the goals and values one possesses may be understood as outcomes
as well. The structure of social and personal identifications, goals, and priorities
that constitute self and identity (Marcia 1980) may be understood not only as a
function of life experience and cultural context, but also as a domain where personality dispositions play a part. How do personality traits influence self-concept and
identity? Work in this area shows that personality traits affect the formation of identity, while at the same time identity both directs and becomes a part of personality
through exploration and commitment processes in identity development (Helson &
Srivastava 2001). Clancy & Dollinger (1993) have shown robust relations between
personality traits and Marcia’s (1980) four categories of identity development
(achieved, moratorium, diffuse, and foreclosed). Specifically, foreclosure is predicted by low levels of openness to experience; identity achievement is predicted
by low neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion. Both moratorium and
diffusion stages involve neuroticism. Additionally, diffusion is inversely related to
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agreeableness. Openness to experience may be the most important personality trait
in terms of impact on identity development (Duriez et al. 2004, Helson & Srivastava
2001).
Furthering this typological approach to identity, recent longitudinal studies
have explored the interactive roles of personality and identity over the life span,
while focusing on more complex identity constructs such as identity consolidation (development of a coherent, grounded, and positive identity; Pals 1999) and
identity integration (Helson & Srivastava 2001). This work shows that identity
consolidation is predicted by an early configuration of personality traits related to
openness to experience (desire for exploration and stimulation), low neuroticism
(low rumination), and conscientiousness (ambition). This pattern of personality
traits leads to an organized and committed yet flexible exploration of identity,
which in turn predicts well-being. These identity choices lead to particular personal and professional choices that consolidate earlier personality traits (Helson &
Srivastava 2001, Pals 1999). The influence of personality traits is seen both at the
level of narrower, cognitive, identity-relevant processes such as identity language
(Pennebaker & King 1999), autobiographical memories (Thorne & Klohnen 1993),
and self-concept clarity (Campbell et al. 1996), as well as at the broad level of life
story narratives (McAdams 2001).
Personality dispositions also influence more contextualized types of identities,
such as cultural identity. For example, among immigrants, ethnic cultural identity
is mainly predicted by conscientiousness and agreeableness (i.e., warmth and commitment towards one’s culture of origin), whereas identification with the dominant
host culture is largely predicted by openness and extraversion (Benet-Martı́nez &
Haritatos 2005, Ryder et al. 2000). Further, supporting other studies on identity
consolidation, openness to experience and low neuroticism predict the degree to
which an individual’s ethnic and mainstream identities are well integrated within
a coherent sense of self (Benet-Martı́nez & Haritatos 2005).
INTERPERSONAL OUTCOMES
One of the most important tasks faced by individuals is the establishment and
maintenance of successful relationships with friends and peers, family members,
and romantic partners. Relationships do have emergent properties, but the nature
and quality of the relationship nonetheless is partially shaped by the dispositions and skills of the individuals involved. The length and quality of most relationships is predicted by socioemotional competence (or socioemotional intelligence),
a broad cognitive, affective, and behavioral construct typically operationalized
in terms of social skills (e.g., ability to engage and effectively maintain social
interaction), emotional skills (expression, empathy, regulation), popularity, and
relationship satisfaction (Bost et al. 1998, Cantor & Kilstrom 1987).
Although socioemotional competence involves personality characteristics related to all the Big Five domains (Sjöberg 2001, van der Zee et al. 2002, Vollrath
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et al. 2004), the strongest personality links are shown for the components of empathy, which seems to be primarily a combination of extraversion and agreeableness,
and emotional regulation, which is best predicted by low neuroticism. The above
personality–social behavior links are robust and interesting but too broad for an
adequate understanding of the role played by personality in more specific types of
relationships, including family, peer, and romantic relationships, as we describe
below.
Peer and Family Relationships
Much of the research examining personality and its role in friendships and peer
relations has been conducted with children and adolescents. Given how much time
children spend at school and playing with friends, understanding how children
and adolescents successfully establish and maintain friendships is important for
its own sake (i.e., to predict personal and school adjustment) and also because
social adjustment in childhood has been shown to be a very strong predictor of the
quality of relationships in adulthood (Parker & Asher 1987).
Of all of the Big Five dimensions, agreeableness and extraversion are the best
predictors of processes and outcomes related to peer relations in children, such as
peer acceptance and friendship (Jensen-Campbell et al. 2002). Specifically, low
agreeableness (hostility) and low extraversion (being withdrawn) are associated
with rejected peer status (Newcomb et al. 1993). These findings are not surprising
given that both agreeableness and extraversion are related to motives and skills
necessary to build and maintain satisfying relations with peers. Longitudinal studies of peer relations in children show that the benefits of agreeableness accumulate
over time by protecting children from victimization (Jensen-Campbell et al. 2002).
Personality also affects the quality of the relationship young adults have with
their parents. These intergenerational relationships are negatively affected by
young adults’ neuroticism, low conscientiousness, and low extraversion (Belsky
et al. 2003). These findings support the notion that the very same life events and
experiences that affect intergenerational relationships in young adulthood (e.g.,
timing of parenthood, when the young adult leaves home, or length of unemployment) could be a function of earlier and concurrent personality traits (Caspi et al.
2005).
Surprisingly few studies have examined the personality predictors of popularity, status, and peer acceptance in adulthood. This is unfortunate since these social
outcomes (i.e., amount of respect, influence, and prominence a person enjoys in
the eyes of others) presumably influence professional and personal social networks
and support. Most of the available evidence points to extraversion (but not agreeableness) as the most important predictor of popularity and status among adults.
Paunonen (2003), for instance, finds evidence that extraversion is related to popularity, dating variety, and self-reported attractiveness. The Anderson et al. (2001)
study of the links between personality and status also supports extraversion as
the main predictor of social acceptance, concurrently and over time, and for both
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sexes. This study is also informative regarding the role (or lack thereof) played by
the other Big Five dimensions in adult peer relations: Neuroticism appears to be
a (negative) predictor of status among men only, supporting the traditional gender
role expectation that men who feel anxious and vulnerable are less deserving of
status and respect (Anderson et al. 2001). Agreeableness does not predict status
for either women or men, which supports the socioanalytic notion that status (or
“getting ahead”) may be inimical to “getting along” (Hogan 1983). Status is unrelated to either conscientiousness or openness in informal groups; however, as
noted by Anderson et al. (2001), conscientiousness may play a role in more formal
organizations and professional groups, where task performance and achievement
play a central role.
Romantic Relationships
Some of the richest evidence for the consequentiality of personality dispositions
with regard to interpersonal relations stems from longitudinal studies exploring the
links between adult personality and romantic relationships. Attaining and maintaining a satisfying romantic relationship is a central feature of most adult lives, and
such relationships play a key role in fostering emotional well-being and physical
health (Berscheid 1999). Do personality dispositions explain why some individuals are involved in satisfying romantic relationships, whereas others are involved
in less satisfying and more distressed relationships?
Neuroticism and low agreeableness consistently emerge as predictors of negative relationship outcomes such as relationship dissatisfaction, conflict, abuse,
and ultimately dissolution (Karney & Bradbury 1995). Naturally, the predisposition to easily experience anger and frustration, distress, and anxiety is potentially
destructive for relationships (although see Gottman 1994 for a discussion of how
interpersonal conflict may not always be detrimental in intimate relationships).
Relationship quality is directly affected by neuroticism (Donnellan et al. 2005);
this relation between neuroticism and relationship dissatisfaction involves a reciprocal process such that negative emotions increase relationship distress, which in
turn accentuates negative emotionality (Robins et al. 2002). These effects seem to
be consistent across relationships, as neuroticism and low agreeableness predict
dissatisfaction across relationships with different partners (Robins et al. 2002).
Longitudinal evidence shows that personality traits predict not only concurrent
relationship outcomes, but also future ones (Donnellan et al. 2005).
Recent multimethod research with dyads shows that the link between personality and relationship status and quality is more than an artifact of shared method
variance arising from self-report measurement procedures (Donnellan et al. 2004,
Watson et al. 2000). Watson et al. (2000) used both self-ratings and partner ratings
of personality in both dating and married samples. Positive and negative affect were
related to relationship satisfaction in the predicted direction in both samples. Conscientiousness and agreeableness predicted satisfaction in dating couples, whereas
extraversion predicted satisfaction in the married couples.
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In general, there appears to be modest to moderate assortative marriage across
a wide range of psychological characteristics (e.g., intellectual abilities, values,
political attitudes, and religious beliefs) and sociodemographic variables (e.g., age,
education). But recent studies of personality and assortment indicate low levels of
partner similarity in personality (Gattis et al. 2004, Luo & Klohnen 2005, Watson
et al. 2004). It is not clear whether spouse similarity and relationship satisfaction
are related, with some studies suggesting a positive relation (e.g., Luo & Klohnen
2005), whereas others (Gattis et al. 2004) report that personality similarity does
not independently predict relationship satisfaction.
Finally, it is important to note that personality dispositions, besides predicting
romantic relationship outcomes such as quality, satisfaction, and length, also influence relationship-relevant cognitive-motivational mechanisms such as attitudes,
goals, and emotional scripts that people bring to their romantic relationships. Traits
from all the Big Five domains have been related to attachment styles (Shaver
& Brennan 1992), dating attitudes and behavior (Schmitt 2002), and love styles
(Heaven et al. 2004).
SOCIAL/INSTITUTIONAL OUTCOMES
In this section, we examine three outcomes in the world of work and occupation:
vocational interests, work satisfaction, and job performance. These three outcomes
subsume the basic components of work of interest to psychology: What kind of
work is preferred, how well is it performed, and how much satisfaction is attained?
There has been a surge of recent interest in the relation between personality and
political attitudes and ideology, giving proof to the longevity and fruitfulness
of the construct of authoritarianism. Criminality and community involvement are
also discussed below, representing the extremes of antisocial and prosocial societal
outcomes.
Occupational Choice and Performance
Organizations and institutions require individuals to fill specific roles that require
different skills and bestow different rewards. Individuals seek, to varying degrees,
roles that provide personal satisfaction and reward. This is most clearly true in
the context of individuals’ work, occupation, and relation with an employer, but is
also true in their relations with their community, though here arrangements may
be much less formal.
Two recently completed meta-analyses (Barrick et al. 2003, Larson et al. 2002)
examining the relation between personality traits and occupational types concurred
in finding that extraversion was related to social and enterprising occupational
interests, agreeableness to social interests, and openness to investigative and artistic
interests. Neuroticism was not related to any occupational interest. Barrick et al.
(2003) (but not Larson et al. 2002) reported conscientiousness to be related to
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conventional interests. Personality traits appear to broadly influence occupational
interests and choices.
The meta-analytic finding that conscientiousness predicts job performance reported by Barrick & Mount (1991) was broadly influential. Research examining
job and occupational variables began to include personality and especially Big
Five measures, and personality researchers began to examine the consequential
meaning of the five factors. Barrick et al. (2001) performed a meta-analysis of
the meta-analytic studies of the relation between job performance and Big Five
personality traits. Conscientiousness predicts performance, assessed in various
ways, in all included occupations. Smaller, though nearly as broad, effects were
found for extraversion and emotional stability—which seem important for some,
though not all, occupational groups—while only weak and narrow effects for
agreeableness and openness were identified. So, for example, agreeableness relates to job performance when a teamwork criterion is used. Perhaps the most well
known occupation-specific measure of job performance is grade point average
for students, and it can hardly be a surprise to find a positive relation between
GPA and conscientiousness (Paunonen 2003). Another educational outcome, the
number of years of education, is related to intellect, or openness (Goldberg et al.
1998).
Although job performance is inarguably an important outcome from the standpoint of the employer, the employees may be more concerned with their feelings
about work and their perceptions of the workplace. The meta-analysis of Thoresen
et al. (2003) examined work attitudes and job perceptions and their relation to positive and negative affect. For present purposes, equating these affect variables with
extraversion and neuroticism is straightforward because (a) studies using measures
of extraversion and neuroticism included in the meta-analysis were so coded, and
(b) a trait-state moderator variable had little effect. The results of Thoresen et al.
(2003) show that extraversion and emotional stability are associated with job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and are negatively related to a wish to
change jobs and with outcomes associated with burnout. Conscientiousness may
best predict how well one does at work, but extraversion and emotional stability
are more important for understanding how one feels about work.
Career success may be understood as having both extrinsic (e.g., salary and
authority) and intrinsic (satisfaction) components. In longitudinal data, both extrinsic and intrinsic career success were predicted by childhood conscientiousness, openness, and emotional stability. When controlling for other personality
variables, agreeableness was negatively related to extrinsic success (Judge et al.
1999).
Roberts et al. (2003) report that personality assessed in late adolescence affects
various workplace experiences and outcomes in early adulthood. Emotional stability (negative emotionality) is most strongly related to financial security; agreeableness (positive emotionality-communion) is related to occupational attainment.
Resource power and work involvement are predicted by extraversion (positive
emotionality-agency).
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Political Attitudes and Values
Although political attitudes may be most frequently understood as predictor rather
than outcome variables, the political attitudes and beliefs of individuals in a
democratic society may affect social policies in diverse and consequential ways.
Certainly, candidates for public office and those who financially support these candidates appear to believe that political attitudes are important. Since the publication
of The Authoritarian Personality (Adorno et al. 1950), linkages between personality and political beliefs have been of considerable interest. Saucier’s (2000)
analysis of the broad domain of social and political attitudes (“isms”) suggests
that openness is related to the content of social attitudes, with political conservativism and right-wing authoritarianism being negatively related to this personality
characteristic. Heaven & Bucci (2001) also report this negative association between openness and right-wing authoritarianism. Van Hiel et al. (2004) report this
same negative correlation between openness and conservative political beliefs, as
well as smaller relations between these same beliefs and low agreeableness and
conscientiousness.
Jost et al. (2003a) integrate personality characteristics within a motivated social cognition approach to understanding political conservativism, and their metaanalysis suggests that death anxiety, dogmatism–intolerance of ambiguity, and the
needs for order, structure, and closure are positive correlates of conservativism,
whereas negative correlates include openness to experience, uncertainty tolerance,
and integrative complexity. These traits, individually and as a set, suggest a susceptibility to a fear of uncertainty that may be assuaged by political conservativism.
Greenberg & Jonas (2003) object to the Jost et al. (2003a) claims, posing an alternative conception of conservativism and suggesting that other political points of
view may also serve the same psychological function. In their view, the rigidity
or fixedness of one’s political point of view is independent of the left-versus-right
content of political belief. Jost et al. (2003b) respond both by considering the
temporal context of political movements and by directly pitting a “rigidity-ofthe-right” hypothesis against the alternative “ideological extremity” hypothesis.
The evidence reviewed by Jost et al. (2003a,b) is more consistent with associating
conservativism rather than extremity of belief with psychological rigidity, though
some studies do suggest that both processes may be involved. One of the next
challenges would appear to be to examine extreme liberalism to determine when
rigidity does, and does not, come into play.
One might also ask whether specific substantive features of conservative ideology are associated with particular person attributes. Van Hiel & Mervielde (2004)
found political conservativism to be negatively related to openness, and their data
suggest that this relationship is apparently more a function of cultural than of
economic conservative beliefs.
When it comes to candidates and elections, Caprara & Zimbardo (2004) describe
a model of the political process that depends directly and considerably on the
personalities of voters and their perceptions of candidates’ personalities. They
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report that those supporting more liberal candidates describe themselves and the
candidates they prefer as higher on openness and agreeableness, whereas those
who support more conservative candidates describe themselves and the candidates
they support as more extraverted and conscientious. This congruency involving
the perceived personality of the politician, the personality of the voter, and the
ideological preferences of the politician and the voter suggests a deep involvement
of personality in the political process.
Volunteerism and Community Involvement
Among the more socially important kinds of outcomes that might be imagined
are prosocial behavior and volunteerism. Clearly, there are important differences
among people in their willingness to get involved in helping others, both in formal
contexts of volunteering and social service as well as in less planned, everyday acts
of helping. Penner et al. (1995) have developed a measure of prosocial behavior
that includes an other-oriented empathy scale that correlates strongly with agreeableness. Helpfulness, a second factor on Penner’s measure, appears more related
to extraversion. These interpersonal traits are related to a wide variety of prosocial
behaviors and volunteerism (Penner 2002). The link between volunteerism and
the interpersonal traits of extraversion and agreeableness was also found in a large
college student sample (Carlo et al. 2005), where there is some evidence that the
trait-behavior link was mediated by prosocial motivation.
Extraversion and agreeableness not only predict community involvement, but
these same traits also seem to predict who assumes a leadership role. The interpersonal traits of extraversion and agreeableness are positively associated with a
transformational leadership style among community leaders (Judge & Bono 2000).
Criminality
Criminal activity lies at the opposite end of the spectrum of community involvement, but it is not simply the opposite or lack of altruism. Krueger et al. (2001)
found that antisocial behavior and altruism are distinct, with different origins and
correlates. In contrast to the involvement of extraversion in prosocial behavior,
antisocial behavior was associated with low constraint and negative emotionality
(low conscientiousness and neuroticism).
Low conscientiousness seems to be consistently associated with various aspects
of criminal and antisocial actions: It is related to behavior problems in adolescent
boys (Ge & Conger 1999), antisocial behavior (Shiner et al. 2002), deviance and
suicide attempts (Verona et al. 2001), and along with low agreeableness, low
conscientiousness is associated with substance abuse (Walton & Roberts 2004).
Wiebe (2004) reports that low agreeableness and low conscientiousness predict
criminal acts in college student and in prison samples. But Wiebe (2004) also
warns that self-deception and/or other deception may importantly attenuate the
ability to predict criminal acts from self-reported personality traits.
Spirituality & virtues: religious beliefs and behavior
Health: longevity, (−) risky behavior
Psychopathology: (−) substance abuse,
(−/+) personality disorders
Identity: achievement, ethnic culture identification (for
minorities)
Happiness: (−) subjective well-being
Spirituality & virtues: (−) existential well-being,
(−) humor
Health: (−) coping
Psychopathology: anxiety, depression, (+/−) personality
disorders
Identity: (−) identity integration/consolidation
Spirituality & virtues: existential/phenomenological
concerns, forgiveness, inspiration
Psychopathology: substance abuse
Identity: (−) foreclosure, identity
integration/consolidation, majority culture
identification (for minorities)
Conscientiousness
Neuroticism
Openness
Occupational choice & performance: social
interests, job attainment, (−) extrinsic success
Community involvement: volunteerism, leadership
Criminality: (−) criminal behavior
Occupational choice & performance: performance,
success
Political attitudes & values: conservativism
Criminality: (−) antisocial and criminal behavior
Occupational choice & performance:
(−) satisfaction, (−) commitment, (−) financial
security, (−) success
Criminality: antisocial behavior
Peer & family relations: peers’ acceptance and
friendship (children)
Romantic relations: satisfaction (dating
couples only)
Peer & family relations: family satisfaction
Romantic relations: satisfaction (dating
couples only)
Peer & family relations: (−) family
satisfaction, (−) status (males only)
Romantic relations: dissatisfaction, conflict,
abuse, dissolution
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Occupational choice & performance: investigative
and artistic interests, success
Political attitudes & values: (−) right-wing
authoritarianism, liberalism
Occupational choice & performance: social and
enterprising interests, satisfaction, commitment,
involvement
Community involvement: volunteerism, leadership
Peer & family relations: peers’ acceptance and
friendship (children and adults); dating
variety, attractiveness, status (adults)
Romantic relations: satisfaction
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PERSONALITY AND PREDICTION
Note: (−) indicates a negative relation between the trait and outcome.
Spirituality & virtues: religious beliefs and behavior,
gratitude, forgiveness, humor
Health: longevity; (−) heart disease
Psychopathology: (−/+) personality disorders
Identity: ethnic culture identification (for minorities)
Agreeableness
Social institutional outcomes
Interpersonal outcomes
AR
∗
Happiness: subjective well-being
Spirituality & virtues: existential well-being, gratitude,
inspiration
Health: longevity, coping, resilience
Psychopathology: (−) depression, (−/+) personality
disorders
Identity: majority culture identification (for minorities)
Individual outcomes
Summary of the relation between personality traits and consequential outcomes∗
Extraversion
TABLE 1
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CONCLUSION
In discussing the relation between personality characteristics and consequential
outcomes, we have not attempted to evaluate effect size. The various meta-analyses
cited here provide such estimates, and in not noting the specific results, we do
not wish to suggest that such quantitative indicators are unimportant. However,
making fine distinctions about the relative sizes of particular effects may be largely
premature, and we wish to emphasize a rather different consideration. Any nonzero
effect of a personality characteristic on most of the outcome measures we describe
would be a large effect in practical terms. In parallel to the argument of Abelson
(1985), it should be clear that even if the relation between agreeableness and
volunteerism is small, then even a small change in mean agreeableness scores
might increase by thousands the number of volunteers serving community needs in
AIDS clinics and elsewhere. Our claim is not that personality effects are “large” at
a completely disaggregated level of analysis (i.e., the prediction of what one person
will do on a particular occasion), but rather that personality effects are ubiquitous,
influencing each of us all the time, and when aggregated to the population level
such effects are routinely consequential.
Our account of specific outcomes associated with personality factors is summarized in Table 1. At first glance, it is apparent from the table that each of the five
superordinate traits is broadly implicative. It would be impossible, simply from
the summary of the evidence as presented in Table 1, to claim that any of the five
traits has a narrow and circumscribed set of correlates. There is, in fact, but one
empty cell in the table: Openness as yet has no well-documented effects in the
interpersonal domain that we were able to locate. Any nominee for a sixth factor
should possess the same kind of breadth in its external correlates as shown by the
present five. This is not to say that additional variables outside of the five-factor
structure are not useful in prediction. But the expectation, at present, is that such a
variable will have a narrower band of consequential outcomes. Nor should Table 1
be taken as an endorsement of the claim that the five superordinate traits are those
that should be used in applied prediction contexts. As noted earlier, there is both
good reason and some evidence to expect that larger effects would be obtained by
using multiple narrow predictor variables (Paunonen et al. 2003). Although such
an approach would maximize predictive accuracy, it would do so at the price of
cumulative knowledge of the kind depicted in Table 1. When the mechanism that
relates personality process to consequential outcome is identified, then the time to
utilize specific measures of that process will have arrived.
Arguments about whether personality is consistent over time and context, arguments about the proper units of personality, and arguments about the utility
of different types of measures have all had one common and unfortunate effect:
They have obscured the reasons why proponents of different positions cared about
personality in the first place, and first and foremost among these reasons is that
personality matters.
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Annual Review of Psychology
Volume 57, 2006
CONTENTS
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Frontispiece—Herbert C. Kelman
xvi
PREFATORY
Interests, Relationships, Identities: Three Central Issues for Individuals and
Groups in Negotiating Their Social Environment, Herbert C. Kelman
1
BRAIN MECHANISMS AND BEHAVIOR: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION
Emotion and Cognition: Insights from Studies of the Human Amygdala,
Elizabeth A. Phelps
27
STRESS AND NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY
Stressful Experience and Learning Across the Lifespan, Tracey J. Shors
55
REWARD AND ADDICTION
Behavioral Theories and the Neurophysiology of Reward, Wolfram Schultz
87
GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR
Genetics of Affective and Anxiety Disorders,
E.D. Leonardo and René Hen
117
SLEEP
Sleep, Memory, and Plasticity, Matthew P. Walker and Robert Stickgold
139
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY, ETHOLOGY, AND EVOLUTION
Neuroecology, David F. Sherry
167
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
The Evolutionary Psychology of Facial Beauty, Gillian Rhodes
199
LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
Explanation and Understanding, Frank C. Keil
227
ADOLESCENCE
Adolescent Development in Interpersonal and Societal Contexts,
Judith G. Smetana, Nicole Campione-Barr, and Aaron Metzger
255
INDIVIDUAL TREATMENT
Enduring Effects for Cognitive Therapy in the Treatment of Depression
and Anxiety, Steven D. Hollon, Michael O. Stewart, and Daniel Strunk
285
vii
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CONTENTS
FAMILY/MARITAL THERAPY
Current Status and Future Directions in Couple Therapy,
Douglas K. Snyder, Angela M. Castellani, and Mark A. Whisman
317
ATTITUDE CHANGE AND PERSUASION
Attitudes and Persuasion, William D. Crano and Radmila Prislin
345
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BARGAINING, NEGOTIATION, CONFLICT, SOCIAL JUSTICE
Psychological Perspectives on Legitimacy and Legitimation, Tom R. Tyler
375
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND ASSESSMENT
Personality and the Prediction of Consequential Outcomes, Daniel J. Ozer
and Verónica Benet-Martı́nez
401
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Child Development and the Physical Environment, Gary W. Evans
423
MARKETING AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Consumer Psychology: Categorization, Inferences, Affect, and Persuasion,
Barbara Loken
453
STRUCTURES AND GOALS OF EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS
Classroom Goal Structure, Student Motivation, and Academic
Achievement, Judith L. Meece, Eric M. Anderman,
and Lynley H. Anderman
487
DATA ANALYSIS
Analysis of Longitudinal Data: The Integration of Theoretical Model,
Temporal Design, and Statistical Model, Linda M. Collins
505
TIMELY TOPICS
The Internet as Psychological Laboratory, Linda J. Skitka
and Edward G. Sargis
Family Violence, Patrick Tolan, Deborah Gorman-Smith, and David Henry
Understanding Affirmative Action, Faye J. Crosby, Aarti Iyer,
and Sirinda Sincharoen
529
557
585
INDEXES
Subject Index
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 47–57
Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 47–57
ERRATA
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology chapters
may be found at http://psych.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml
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