answer the following questions from the notes I uploaded ONLY! cite the answers like this:
Use APA Style or these simple examples:
Example: If you got the information from the text book use the page numbers: (Textbook, pg 84-86)
Example:If you got the information from my lecture use slide numbers or approx. time stamps: (Lecture Ch 4, Slide 13)
Chapter Eight Objectives:
Explain what the misinformation effect is. What are the exact steps needed to produce the misinformation effect (implant a false memory) and provide an example.
What are THREE methods used to implant a false memory (from the misinformation studies)?
Describe in detail the FOUR theories of forgetting? Include a real-life example of each.
Describe TWO ways top down influences (bias, expectation, and prior knowledge) influence autobiographical memory?
Describe in detail HOW language is both organized and produced?
What are THREE problems of speech perception and how are all three solved?
Describe in detail what specific evidence we have that syntax and grammar are innate?
What do we mean when we say Language Influences How We Think? Give an example of this and explain HOW this happens.
Memory Errors: Memory Gaps
Memories for widely publicized events are often
incorrect:
• An airplane lost power to two engines
• It crashed into the side of a building in Amsterdam
• Media reported extensively on what was just
considered a national disaster
•
Study One:
• 193 people were interviewed 10 months later
• More than half the participants reported seeing
the crash on TV (55%)
• However, no footage of the crash exists
•
Study Two: Dig Deeper
Bias, Prior Knowledge
and Expectation Shape Memory
Participants in one study remembered seeing
books in an academic office when there were
none. (Brewer and Treyens 1981)
Creating False Memories (Roedger et al. 1995)
Bed
Rest
Awake
Tired
Dream
Wake
Snooze
Blanket
Slumber
Snore
Nap
Peace
Yawn
Drowsy
3
Memory: A Vast Network of Schemas
Incredible Capacity of LTM!
Not like a book or video tape but more like a Dynamic
Photograph
•
•
Items together at the time of encoding stored together
Similar LTM memories stored together
A Network containing similar Schemas
Memory: A Vast Network of Schemas
• Connections serve as
retrieval paths Good!
• Connections can also lead to
memory errors: Not so
Good
1. Actually Part of the
Memory
2. Associated Elements
• Intrusion Error:
• Shared connections make
similar memories less
distinguishable
• Transplant Error
5
Schematic Knowledge
• Refers to knowledge that describes what is typical of a
given situation; Guides us to what is typical in a
setting
• Often GAPS in your knowledge – schemas help fill
them in; guides you
• Usually Right! (Just like Heuristics)
• But not always.
• Can also cause us to make errors when remembering
an event.
• Memories tend to be Regularized:
• Books are remembered in an academic office.
• Video footage of a plane crash is remembered.
6
LTM Retrieval: Eyewitness Testimony
Reconstruction during retrieval is often flawed
LTM is fragile and highly susceptible to
interference from Top Down processes and stress
Memory Errors: False Memories
Loftus and Palmer, 1974
• Viewing a series of pictures depicting a car accident
• One week later asked about broken glass
How fast was Car A going when it _____ Car B?
Did you see broken glass?
8
Misinformation Effect
Event
Time
Misleading information
Misleading information
becomes part of the
remembered event.
Misinformation Effect
• Participant experiences an event and is
exposed to misleading information about
how it unfolded
• Some time is allowed to pass and on a
memory test participants incorporate the
misleading information into their original
memory.
9
Misinformation Effect
True Evidence and False Memories
11
False and Implanted Memories
Entire events can be implanted
into memory.
• Easier to plant plausible
memories than implausible.
• Easier to add false memories
than to replace true with false.
• Visual Imagery can increase
one’s confidence in a false
memory (opposed to auditory).
• Context Reinstatement
• Guided Imagery
12
False and Implanted Memories
False memories can occur for
emotional and consequential
events.
• Shaw and Porter (2015):
Participants were
persuaded that they had
committed a crime that in
fact had never happened.
o Participants
remembered this
imaginary event a few
years later.
• False memories can be
planted through repetition
and social pressures.
• This effect can lead people
to confess to crimes they
did not commit.
13
Forgetting
Helpful for focus and
organization!
Encoding Failure
• aka Failure of Acquisition
• To forget info must be encoded in
•
the first place!
The most common memory break
down
Four Theories of Forgetting:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Decay Theory
Interference Theory
Retrieval Theory
Motivation Theory
1. Decay Theory
Decay
• “Use It or Lose It”
•
Fades over mere passage of time
Retention Interval
Forgetting Curve
• Forgetting rapid at first then slows
•
down
Levels off
Pop Psychology
• Passing of time not a strong factor in
•
predicting LTM
Much more important factor:
Interfering Succeeding Events
2. Interference Theory
Interference
• Competition between new and
•
older information
Largest predictor of forgotten
information
New memories (information)
interferes with older
memory consolidation
• Considerable amount of time
•
to consolidate into LTM
During this time subject to
distortion or replacement
2. Interference Theory: Two Types
Proactive Interference: Past memories interfere with new memories
• Reduced memory for target info as a result of earlier learned material
Retroactive Interference: New memories interfere with past memories
• Reduced memory for target info as a result of newly learned material (new memories
influence over past ones)
3. Retrieval Theory
Retrieval Theory: forgetting caused
inability to access info
• Encoding Specificity Effect
• aka Cue-dependent forgetting
Info there just don’t have proper cues
• Failure to recall missing info due to missing
cues that were present at the time memory
was encoded
• TOT Phenomenon
4. Motivation Theory
Not exactly forgetting; motivated
distortions
Common and Very Powerful
•
•
•
Failure to remember or retrieve
unpleasant or threatening info
Motivation can distort memories
Memory is subservient to our own
goals
Example: People who owe money
forgetting to sign IRS forms at a rate
much higher than people who the
govt owes money
So extreme original information is
often times lost
Top Down Processing
Explicit Memory
Autobiographical Memory
•
•
•
•
Memory of episodes and events in one’s own life
Blending of both Sematic and Episodic Memories
Adds a sense of continuity, consistency in life
Builds social bonds
Bias, Expectation and Prior Knowledge play a large part
1. Personal Perspective: “Relive” an experience very
2.
vividly viewing our memory of a certain experience
from a personal vantage point
Observer Perspective: See our life’s history as a
highlight reel, vantage of an observer not a participant
Newer = Personal
Older = Observer
Autobiographical Memory
Self-Reference Effect
• better memory for information relevant
to oneself
• Also how we gravitate towards and have
more positive associations with
• Conscious awareness not a requirement
• Quite Powerful
Self-Schema
• Set of beliefs and memories about
oneself
• However still a mixture of:
1. Genuine Recall
2. Schema-Based Reconstructions
• Positive Bias
22
Autobiographical Memory: Emotional Memory
Memory Consolidation
• A Process that makes memories stronger
Causes of better memory for EMOTIONAL events
• Increased activity in the amygdala and hippocampus
• Intrusive Emotional Memories More Rehearsal
Opposite can happen during STRESSFUL events
• Decreased activity in PFC impairs working memory
• No record of event
• In general stress undermines memory consolidation
Emotional Event!
Increased
activity in the
Amygdala
Increased
activity in the
Hippocampus
Better
Consolidation!
Subcortical Structures: Limbic System
24
Autobiographical Memory: Long, Long Term Memory
25
Long Term Retention of Course Material
• Memory for Cognitive Psychology class (Conway, Cohen, & Stanhope, 1991)
• Also depends on well the memory was established.
• These students learned the material quite well in the class!
• Grade in course was a good predictor of memory retained
Then fairly stable memory
Considerable
loss for three
years
Autobiographical Memory: Reminiscence Effect
27
Human Memory Pop Psychology
Widespread inaccurate beliefs about how memory works
• Examples of Pop Psychology:
o Memory functions like a video recorder.
o Memories are accessed like files in a computer
o Some types of memories will never be forgotten.
o People can remember things with confidence that
never occurred
o Accuracy of memories for emotional events
o Repressed Memories are a thing
o Memory errors occur much rarely than they
actually do.
o Confidence indicates accuracy.
o Hypnosis can reveal long-lost memories.
o Memories are largely the product of our own
stories we tell ourselves
28
Memory: An Overall Assessment
Memory Errors
• People can confidently remember things that never happened.
• Memories are interconnected, creating retrieval paths but also intrusions.
• Forgetting may be a consequence of how general knowledge is formed.
o Specific episodes merge in memory to form schemata.
o Schemata guide attention during encoding and inferences during recall.
• Despite errors, our memory system is efficient and aids in knowledge acquisition.
Principles of Autobiographical Memory reflect more general memory principles.
• All memories depend on connections
o Formation of schemata from individual memory episodes
o Potential for intrusion errors and susceptibility to misinformation
• Importance of rehearsal
Other principles of autobiographical memory may be distinct.
• The role of emotion in shaping autobiographical memory may be less applicable to
other kinds of memory.
29
CHAPTER 10
Language
Organization of Language
Hierarchical, with each level
composed of other sublevels
Sentence—coherent sequence of
words
Word—a complete, discrete unit
of meaning in a language
Morpheme—the smallest
language unit that carries meaning
Phoneme—the smallest unit of
sound that serves to distinguish
meaning
2
Production of Speech
Categorization of speech sounds
based on three features:
• Manner of Production: how
airflow is restricted
• Voicing: those that are
produced by the vocal folds or
not
• Place of Articulation: point of
where airflow is restricted
Complexity of Speech Perception
No Gaps between Phonemes! A listeners first step toward phoneme identification is to parse this air vibration
into appropriate segments. A process called Speech Segmentation.
4
Complexity of Speech Perception
Three problems with understanding speech:
1. Speech Segmentation: Speech is actually continuous
uninterrupted flow of sound (Air Vibrations) this is the
first process to understand
2. Coarticulation: refers to the blending of adjacent
phonemes
• Makes speech production faster and more fluent
3. Speech Variation from Speaker to Speaker
The Role of Bias, Prior Knowledge and Expectation
Perception of language relies on bias, prior knowledge and expectation to
supplement unclear input. What is the Context?
•
Same With Perception!
•
Same With Memory!
Phonemic Restoration Effect
•
We “hear” phonemes that are not actually present in the stimulus if they are
highly likely in the context!
•
Example: “The state governors met with their respective legi*latures
convening in the capital city.”
• Splice out phonemes and ask: “Did you hear the entire word?”
Categorical Perception
Top-down Processes: can change what people hear!
The 50 most commonly used words in English make up roughly half of the words
you actually hear.
6
Combining Phonemes and Morphemes
Phonology is also concerned with the sequences of phonemes that are
acceptable in the language
• Only some combinations are acceptable within a language.
• Rules for adjusting phonemes are based on specific combinations.
For each word that a speaker knows, the speaker
• Knows the word’s sound:
• The sequence of phonemes that make up the word
• Usually knows the word’s orthography:
• The sequence of letters that make up the word
• Knows the rules of syntax:
• How to use and combine the word with other words
• Knows the word’s semantics:
• What the word means – a semantic representation to go with a
phonological representation
7
Building New Words
Generativity
• The capacity to create an endless series of new combinations, all
built from the same basic set of units
• Phonemes are combined to produce different morphemes, which
are combined to create words.
•
•
•
Progress in technology has required new terminology
(“malware,” “spyware”).
Social and political changes have led to new vocabulary
(“paleo,” “selfie”).
Our morphological knowledge specifies how to create variations of
each word by adding appropriate morphemes.
• For example, “hack,” “hacker,” “hacking,” “hacked.”
• Appropriately combining and adjusting existing words, Brexit
combines Britain and Exit
8
Syntax
Syntax: rules that govern the structure of
a phrase or sentence (upper levels of
language hierarchy)
• Rules on what are acceptable
combinations of words
• Any speaker can identify “bad” strings
• Rules do not depend on meaning!
• “Colorless green ideas sleep
furiously”
• Cookie Monster’s demand, “Me
want cookie!”
• A sentence can violate syntactic
rules and still be meaningful; it
can follow rules and still be
meaningful
9
Syntax
• “Jabberwocky” Lewis Carroll
• Relies on proper syntax and appropriate
use of morphemes to create gibberish
that is wonderfully English-like.
• “He left it dead, and with its head / He
went galumphing back.”
• “Twas brillig, and the slithy toves did
gyre and gimble in the wabe . . .”
10
Phrase Structure Tree
Phrase Structure Rules:
•
specify the overall organization of a sentence –
determine how various elements are link to
one another
Phrase Structure Tree
•
Overall sentence (s) consists of a noun phrase (NP)
and a verb phrase (VP)
•
NP composed of a determiner followed by an
adjective and a noun
•
VP composed of a verb and a NP
Descriptive rules: rules describing the language as it is
ordinarily used by fluent speakers and listeners
Prescriptive rules: rules describing how something is
“supposed to or ought to be”
Biological Roots of Language
We use language as effortlessly as we breathe
However language is remarkably complex!
Most of the time we are unaware of the complex
rules governing
• phoneme and morpheme use and
construction
• word generativity
• grammar
• syntax
Language use in humans is enabled via
sophisticated neural machinery that is
specialized for learning and using language.
12
Boca’s Area vs Wernicke’s Area
• Location Function, Lesions and Brain Damage
• In 1861 Paul Broca treated a man who had suffered a stroke.
The patient could understand language but COULD NOT
SPEAK IT
• Damaged Area: Next to Motor Area in Frontal Lobe
• Temporal Lobe OK!
• “Broca’s Area”
• In 1876 Carl Wernicke treated a stroke victim who could speak
language just fine, (unlike Broca’s patient), but what the
patient said made very little sense. “Word Salad”. Patient
COULD NOT UNDERSTAND spoken or written language
• Damaged Area: Next to Memory Area in Temporal Lobe
• Frontal Lobe (incl Motor Area) OK!
• “Wernicke’s Area”
Syntax and Grammar are Special
A considerable amount of neural tissue devoted to language!
A predisposition for Syntax and Grammar:
Aphasia: a disruption of language
Lateral (Sylvan) Fissure Damage
Damage to Broca’s area leads to nonfluent aphasia.
•
Expressive Aphasia
•
Retain good language comprehension
•
Impaired syntax and grammar production (writing and speech)
Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to fluent aphasia.
•
Retain natural sounding rhythm and good grammar and syntax
•
However content make no or very little sense incl nonexistent words
•
Impaired language comprehension (writing and speech)
Language Learning and Acquisition
Biological underpinnings of language show up in
another way: the way language is learned!
By 3 to 4 years old, most children can
reasonably converse.
Language structure is acquired across many
different environments
• Home Sign: Children who are born deaf and
are not taught sign language will develop
their own gestural language
15
Language Acquisition as Complex Pattern Recognition
Children are amazingly sensitive and aware of language
patterns and regularities. Express surprise at
irregularities
• Which syllables follow which
• Vocab (New Words)
• Unexpected patterns of words
• They derive broad principles from the language
(or languages) to which they are exposed!
Overregularization Errors
• By age three
• “Yesterday, I thinked.”
Animal Language
If humans are biologically prepared for language learning,
which genes underlie this preparation?
• FOXP2
Many species have sophisticated communication systems.
• Extremely limited relative to human language
• Do not support generativity
There have been attempts to teach animals language.
• Greatest success from species that are genetically similar to
humans
• Kanzi, male bonobo
• Extremely large vocab and basic communication
• Understanding of keyboard symbols and correct syntax
• Abilities below those of ave 3/4 year old
Language Influences Thought
Linguistic relativity: the hypothesis that people who speak
different languages think differently as a result
•
Whorfian Hypothesis: Irreversible and permanent
•
A language’s color vocabulary and categorization may affect
how its speakers perceive and remember color.
•
Vocabulary for more broad or nuanced items: “There isn’t a
word for it in English”
•
Spatial terminology: Objective “east and west” vs subjective
“left and right”
•
Assigning gender to nouns: Male associated adjectives vs
female associated adjectives
•
Foucault: Labeling Theory and Assigning Adjectives
•
Descriptions of events: Active “George broke the vase” vs
Passive “The vase broke”
• Memory for agents in accidents
18
Language Influences Thought
YES, language has a direct impact on how you think.
•
Language certainly sets the structure for how we think.
•
The categories recognized by your language become the
categories used in thought
•
Not permanent or irreversible
Attention!
Language influences thought indirectly, via attention.
•
Other factors can cancel out this influence (e.g., intention to
remember).
Language
Attention!
What you pay
attention to
Shapes how
you think!
19
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
