Brian Smith is a 4-year-old who resides with his mother, father, and younger brother Luke in a four-bedroom home in a comfortable suburban neighborhood. Brian’s father is a civil engineer and his mother is a dietitian. As a newborn, Brian was described as a “fussy” baby who did not enjoy being held by others, including his parents. As he grew, Brian’s parents coped by minimizing their interactions with him, often encouraging him to play by himself. Although he is able to talk, he prefers to express his needs by grunting and mumbling. His pediatrician has recommended speech therapy to encourage him to use a greater vocabulary on a regular basis. Brian’s parents are hesitant to “label him” as a “special needs child” at this young age and have declined any intervention at this time.
Brian has had four different childcare providers since he was six months old. For the past year, he and Luke have spent weekdays with their childcare provider, Tracy, who cares for three additional children under age seven, two of whom frequently wrestle, throw food and hit each other during the day. Last year, Brian’s parents decided to enroll him in a pre-school program five days per week. Brian attended exactly two weeks before his parents were contacted over concern that he was constantly hitting others and throwing toys. Rather than work with the pre-school, Brian’s mother decided to return him to Tracy’s house, explaining that the pre-school did not understand the energy level of boys. Tracy describes Brian as exasperating but has been reluctant to discuss her concerns with the Smiths, for fear that they will remove Brian and Luke from her care, and she needs the money.
In addition to his preschool classmates, Brian has been aggressive with his now 2-year-old brother Luke since Luke was an infant. For example, he has hit Luke, smashed toys over his head, and recently ran Luke over with his tricycle. Brian’s father has become increasingly frustrated as he struggles to communicate with his son. He responds to Brian by yelling and demanding that Brian speak clearly. Interactions with his father often result in Brian screeching, biting his own arm, or throwing objects. Brian’s mother attributes much of Brian’s behavior to being a “toddler boy.” She disciplines him by attempting to explain the reasons his behavior is “not nice.” Brian’s father has begun implementing time-outs as a means of discipline.
Discuss how the key concepts in the chapter may be used to describe Brian and his family. What additional information may be helpful to have about Brian?
Criminal Behavior: A Psychological
Approach
Twelfth Edition
Chapter 2
Origins of Criminal
Behavior:
Developmental Risk
and Protective Factors
Copyright @ 2021 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Developmental Perspective
• Views the life course of all humans as following a
path (or trajectory) that may be littered with risk
factors
• Protective factors
– Personal characteristics or experiences that
can shield children and adolescents from
serious antisocial behavior
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Risk Factors
• Characteristics or experiences that place children
at risk of antisocial or criminal activity
– Family
– Psychological
– Social environmental
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Cumulative Risk Model
• Exposure to multiple risk factors is most likely to
increase the probability that a child, adolescent, or
adult develops antisocial behavior and other
maladaptive behaviors
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Developmental Cascade Model
• Also known as the dynamic cascade model
• Assumes that development in one domain will
shape development in other domains
• Focus on protective factors
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Table 2.3 Key Aspects of Cumulative Risk
and Developmental Cascade Models
Cumulative Risk Model
Developmental Cascade Model
Also called multiple risk model
Also called dynamic cascade model
Predicts negative emotional and
mental health outcomes in the
lifespan
Predicts negative behavioral outcomes
in the lifespan but also predicts positive
outcomes
Additive approach in assessing
overall effects of risks in
development
Interactive approach in assessing
effects of risks in developmental
pathways
Focuses on the harmful
environmental, psychological, and
social influences that heighten the
risk of maladaptive development
Focuses on the development of
competence and resilience to reduce
maladaptive development
Emphasizes identification of children
confronted by multiple risk factors
and development of way to reduce
those factors
Emphasizes well-timed and targeted
interventions designed to promote
positive cascades through development
of competence and resilience
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Resilience
• An individual protective factor that resists the
influence of multiple risk factors
• Three conditions
– Significant threats
– Positive adaptation
– Sufficient protective factors
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Family Risk and Protective Factors
• Poverty
– Adverse effects on child development
– Intertwined with a large number of influences
called poverty cofactors
– Individuals living in poverty are more likely to
be victims, not offenders, of crime
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Single-Parent Households
• Influence of other interacting variables
• Focus on the process, not structure, of family
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Parental Styles and Practices
• Parental practices are parental behavioral
patterns
• Parental styles
1. Authoritarian
2. Permissive
3. Authoritative
4. Neglecting
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Parental Monitoring
• Poor parental monitoring is a strong risk factor for
delinquency
• Especially important during middle-school years
• Positive parent–youth relationships
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Parental Psychopathology
• Depression
• Alcoholism
• Domestic violence
• Child abuse and neglect
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Lack of Attachment
• Attachment theory
– Secure attachment
– Insecure attachment
– Anxious/ambivalent attachment
– Avoidant attachment
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Association with Antisocial Peers
• Peer influence is a strong predictor of adolescent
substance use and delinquent behavior
• Increased susceptibility to peer influence during
adolescence
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Peer Rejection
• One of the strongest predictors of later
involvement in antisocial behavior is early
rejection by peers
– Combined with aggression
• Relational aggression in girls
• Less opportunity to learn social and interpersonal
skills
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Psychological and Behavioral Risk and
Protective Factors (1 of 2)
• Preschool experiences
– Quality of care is important
• Academic failure
– Cascading effect
– Reading achievement
• Lack of empathy
– Theory of mind
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Psychological and Behavioral Risk and
Protective Factors (2 of 2)
• Language deficiencies
– May interfere with socialization and increase
frustration levels
– Protective factors
• Intelligence and delinquency
– Inverse relationship between IQ scores and
delinquency
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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
• Three central behaviors
1. Inattention
2. Impulsivity
3. Excessive motor activity
• Antisocial behavior, aggressive behavior, and an
ADHD diagnosis places someone at a greater risk
of criminal activity as an adult
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Conduct Disorder
• Frequently occurs with ADHD
• A cluster of behaviors characterized by persistent
misbehavior
– Childhood-onset type
– Adolescent-onset type
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Oppositional Defiant Disorder
• Oppositional defiant disorder
– Disruptive behavior disorder
• Problems in self-control of emotions and
behaviors
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Copyright
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restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and
the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.
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