Miami Dade College Psychology Systematic vs Non-Systematic Worksheet

Question 1

(Systematic vs. Non-Systematic).

For this Pause-Problem, I want you to think of a study idea that you can approach first from a non-systematic perspective and second from a systematic perspective. My hint is to start with the non-systematic research first!

Question 2

(Your Lab Study). For this Pause-Problem, look at your lab hypothesis for study one. Does it meet / not meet these? If not, tell me how to fix it?

• A. Is the research question clearly stated?
• B. Is the research question researchable and testable?
• C. Are concepts in the question operationally defined?
• D. Does the question note the unit of analysis?
• E. Does it specify the expected relationship?
• F. Does it focus on outcomes (the DV)?
• G. Does it involve contrasts that are made specific?
• H. Does it specify conditions regarding the relationship?
• I. Does it stem from an idea or theory?

Question 3

For this Pause-Problem, I want you to come up with a brief study idea unrelated to the one you are doing in your lab. First, give me a directional hypothesis for this study. Second, give me a non-directional hypothesis

Question 4

(Pop Quiz). For your last Pause-Problem, I want YOU to write a multiple choice pop-quiz question based on the content of this chapter. I might use your question on a future pop quiz or actual course exam (though not this semester), so make it good! Make sure to include your correct answer and up to five possible answers.

Notes: (Because I include this “Pop Quiz” Pause-problem for all chapters, there are a few notes about it applicable to both this pause-problem and all future Pause-Problems)

1). You need to highlight the correct answer in order to get points for this question (underline it, italicize it, make it all CAPS, put a few asterisks by it, etc. The choice is yours, but highlight it someway and make sure it is the ONLY correct answer. If more than one answer options are correct, you cannot get credit for it.

2). Your pop quiz pause-problem must be based on content relevant to the chapter covered that week.

3). Your pop quiz pause-problem must be multiple choice. Essay questions are not acceptable.

Chapter E (Course PowerPoint)
Chapter 7 (Salkind)
Research Ideas!
An Overview of This Chapter
1
 Now that we are a week or two into the semester, it’s time to focus
our attention on one of the most important aspects of research:
developing a good research question
There are three sections (A B and C) to discuss this chapter …
An Overview of This Chapter
2
 In this chapter we cover the following …
Section A: Chapter D (CPP)
– Part One: The Research Idea
– Part Two: Developing a Research Question
– Part Three: Surveying the Psychological Literature
An Overview of This Chapter
3
 In this chapter we cover the following …
Section B: Salkind (Chapter 7)
– Part One: So You Want To Be A Scientist
– Part Two: The Null Hypothesis
– Part Three: The Research (Alternative) Hypothesis
– Part Four: What Makes A Good Hypothesis (Redux!)
Section C: An Eye Toward The Future
Section A
Chapter D (CPP)
Part One
The Research Idea
The Research Idea
1
 Research ideas can come from many sources
A gap in the literature
Questions that arise from newspapers, magazines, and TV
Listening to a class lecture
Seeing something odd happen in your environment
 In this section, we will focus on three research idea sources …
1). Nonsystematic sources of ideas
2). Systematic sources of ideas
3). Research ideas that evolve from theories
The Research Idea
2
 1). Nonsystematic ideas (often informal) come from sources that
present themselves to us in unpredictable manners; often there is
no rigorous attempt to locate such researchable ideas
Such ideas might come from …
– Inspiration: A blind flash of genius! This is how Newton hit
upon the idea of gravity (after an apple hit upon his head!)
– Serendipity: We might be looking at one situation but find
something unexpected!
– Everyday occurrences and observations
The Research Idea
3
 1). Nonsystematic ideas and casual observations
As an example of “everyday occurrences and observations”,
think about …
– the Zeigarnik Effect
The Research Idea
4
 1). Nonsystematic ideas and casual observations
Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik once noticed an odd
phenomenon. While at a restaurant in a large party, her waiters
seemed to have a phenomenal memory for drink orders, but
only so long as the order was in the process of being served
– When the bill was presented, Zeigarnik asked the waiter for
a refill, but found he had “forgotten” what she was drinking
– She developed the Zeigarnik Effect hypothesis: People
remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than
completed ones.
The Research Idea
5
 1). Nonsystematic ideas and casual observations
The Zeigernik Effect
– Zeigarnik theorized that an incomplete task or unfinished
business creates a “psychic tension” within us. This tension
acts as a motivator to drive us toward completing the task or
finishing the business.
– In Gestalt terms, we are motivated to seek “closure”
The Research Idea
6
 1). Nonsystematic ideas and casual observations
As you can see, casual observations (like Zeigerniks’) may …
– develop from observations in restaurants
– develop from observations in class
– develop through reading articles / books
– develop from observations of animals or people
Think about this last one involving observations and
animal research …
The Research Idea
7
 1). Nonsystematic ideas and casual observations
Unexpected observations made during a project’s course can
spur research, even in animal research
– Joseph Brady and Monkey Ulcers
Monkeys were dying in Joseph Brady’s lab. His friend,
RW Porter, asked if he could do some postmortems on
the dead monkeys to try to determine cause of death
Porter discovered monkey ulcers, & serendipitously
linked them to the stress that comes with leadership
• Subordinate monkeys did not have such ulcers!
The Research Idea
8
 1). Nonsystematic ideas and casual observations
Casual observations may ignite a research idea, leading to
more systematic theorizing
– The Zeigarnik Effect is interesting, but what if …
It was a waitress waiting on cute/ugly guys?
A waiter waiting on cute/ugly girls?
Would these conditions change the memories of the
waiters or waitresses?
The Research Idea
9
 2). Systematic ideas (formal) come from thoroughly examined,
more carefully thought-out sources
Imagine a study by Milgram that focused on social influences
– He wanted to see how others reacted when people suddenly
started looking up in Manhattan (normative social influence)
– That is, would bystanders also look up?
If so, does group size matter
The Research Idea
10
 2). Systematic ideas (formal) come from thoroughly examined,
more carefully thought-out sources
Migram and “looking up”
– Milgram and colleagues had 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, or 15 people look
up in Manhattan. Then he observed how many passersby
also looked up at the top of tall skyscrapers!
When 1 confederate looked up, 10% of those passing by looked up
2 = 20%
3 = 60%
5 = 80%
10 = 82%
15 = 83%
– Size of the influencing group thus matters! 3 to 5 members
increases conformity, beyond 5 has a negligible influence
The Research Idea
11
 2). Systematic ideas (formal) come from thoroughly examined,
more carefully thought-out sources
You can also find ideas by looking at internet research studies
– If you so desired, you could find tons of internet studies on:
Attitudes / Emotions & Attitudes About Punishment
Social Groups and Self-Perception
Racial Identity Development of Biracial Individuals
Regrets Regarding Romantic Relationships
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself!
1
 Which of the following is derived from systematic experience?
A). A researcher notices that some children will not leave their
mother’s side while other children appear to happily wander off
to explore. The researcher thinks differences are explainable by
looking at secure attachment styles between mother and child
B). After reading an article on subliminal priming, a research
thinks she can get participants to endorse negative stereotypes
about women if participants first receive a negative subliminal
prime about women
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself!
2
 Which of the following is derived from systematic experience?
A). A researcher notices that some children will not leave their
mother’s side while other children appear to happily wander off
to explore. The researcher thinks differences are explainable by
looking at secure attachment styles between mother and child
B). After reading an article on subliminal priming, a research
thinks she can get participants to endorse negative stereotypes
about women if participants first receive a negative subliminal
prime about women – Remember, systematic = researched
Pause Problem #1
 Pause-Problem #1 (Systematic vs. Non-Systematic)
For this Pause-Problem, I want you to think of a study idea that
you can approach first from a non-systematic perspective and
second from a systematic perspective.
– My hint is to start with the non-systematic research first!
#1
The Research Idea
12
 3). Research ideas may also evolve from theories
This begs the questions …
– What are theories?
– How are theories developed?
– How do you go about evaluating theories?
The Research Idea
13
 3). Research ideas may also evolve from theories
Theories are formal statements about the relations among the
independent variables (IV’s) and dependent variables (DV’s) in
a given area of research
– In this class, we will deal primarily with scientific theories
Scientific theories describe scientific relationships by
indicating how variables interact within the system to
which the theory applies
Sometimes scientific relationships cannot be observed
directly, but merely inferred through the theory
The Research Idea
14
 3). Research ideas may also evolve from theories
A. Scientific theories help the researcher organize and interpret
research results
– Theories can provide a framework for both organizing and
interpreting research results
– Research results can also be interpreted in light of a theory
B. Scientific theories help the researcher generate research by
providing ideas for new research or providing a framework for
asking and answering questions
Think about the following …
Let’s do a quick study!
 Students Last Name A-M, copy down the following three words:
TRIBE
LEMON
CINERAMA
 Students Last Name N-Z, copy down the following three words
WHIRL
ORANGE
CINERAMA
 For each old word, create a new word that uses ALL of the same
letters as the old word. For example, WEST can become STEW
The Correct Answers
For both groups, here are the correct answers…
Last Name A-M
Last Name N-Z
 TRIBE
 WHIRL
BITER
 LEMON
MELON
 CINERAMA
AMERICAN
Can’t be done!
 ORANGE
Can’t be done!
 CINERAMA
AMERICAN
The Research Idea
15
 3). Research ideas may evolve from theories
You should know about the theory of learned helplessness by
now, since it is pretty famous in psychology
– This theory originated in animal learning research (dogs),
but it was actually a serendipitous experimental finding
The Research Idea
16
 3). Ideas from theories – learned helplessness
Martin Seligman wanted to see if he could transfer a classically
conditioned response to an operant escape situation
– Recall the idea of classical conditioning from your intro to
psych class:
Responses are learned by pairing neutral stimuli with a
stimuli that arouses you. Eventually, the neutral stimulus
arouses you all on its own absent the original stimuli
In other words …
The Research Idea
17
 3). Ideas from theories – learned helplessness
Martin Seligman wanted to see if he could transfer a classically
conditioned response to an operant escape situation
– Also recall the idea of instrumental / operant conditioning
Responses are learned to bring about positive outcomes
(rewards) or to avoid negative outcomes (punishment)
The Research Idea
18
 3). Ideas from theories – learned helplessness
Seligman predicted that a shock to a dog in compartment A
would lead it to run around and jump into compartment B.
A
B
But this did not happen if the
dogs were first prevented
from jumping, but later given
the opportunity to jump!
The Research Idea
19
 In Seligman’s words, the dogs would often
“lay down and quietly whined. After one minute of this we turned
the shock off; the dog had failed to cross the barrier and had not
escaped from the shock. On the next trial, the dog did it again; at
first, it struggled a bit, and then, after a few seconds, it seemed to
give up and to accept the shock passively. On the succeeding
trials, the dog failed to escape”
Seligman, 1975
The Research Idea
20
 3). Ideas from theories – learned helplessness
Seligman coined the term “learned helplessness”, or an
unwillingness to avoid trauma after experiencing repeated
failures to control unavoidable negative events
– This led to the development of a theory of psychological
depression based on the idea that people may experience
depression if they repeatedly experienced unavoidable and
uncontrollable aversive events
The Research Idea
21
 3). Ideas from theories – So what now?
Remember that a theory …
– A. summarizes and organizes knowledge
– B. introduces possible explanations
– C. provides a basis for making judgments
The Research Idea
22
 3). Ideas from theories – So what now?
Seligman accumulated more information about his dogs, finetuning the theory of learned helplessness
– He found that when animals (dogs or humans!) acquire info
about the relationship between a response (trying to avoid a
shock) and the actual outcome (getting shocked) and find
that the outcome and response are independent, then they
may feel that there is no way to avoid the trauma regardless
of their response. In the end, they don’t even try
The Research Idea
23
 3). Ideas from theories – So what now?
Seligman accumulated more information about his dogs, finetuning the theory of learned helplessness
– The nice thing about using theories as an idea source is that
they provide a framework you can use to make more direct,
specific predictions in research.
That is, theories guide hypotheses …
The Research Idea
24
 3). Ideas from theories – So what now?
Hypotheses attempt to organize data and relationships among
specific variables within a portion of large, more comprehensive
theories
– That is, hypotheses are tentative statements (that still need
empirical testing) about the relationships between variables
– Unlike theories, hypotheses are narrow and focused, often
using “If A, Then B” oriented statements. However, they
often logically follow from a theory. For example, …
The Research Idea
25
 3). Ideas from theories – So what now?
The theory of learned helplessness notes that …
– People become depressed when they come to believe that
they are helpless to control reinforcements in their lives
A learned helplessness hypothesis is much more specific …
– When you give someone anagram puzzles that they cannot
solve (because they are unsolvable!), the participant will not
even try to solve a puzzle that looks similarly impossible but
is actually solvable
Think about our “rearranging letters” puzzle!
The Research Idea
26
 3). Ideas from theories – Here’s another example …
Terror Management Theory:
– Theorizes that people are scared when aware of their own
death, so they embrace things that make them feel safe and
secure (e.g. things that support their “cultural worldview”)
A Terror Management Hypothesis:
– When thinking about death (compared to a neutral thought),
participants who hold positive beliefs about America will
support those beliefs to an even great extent. They will also
vilify and hate those who don’t support America
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself!
3
 Which of the following best represents a hypothesis involving
emotion?
A). A person can experience physiological arousal first, and
then interpret those feelings as arousal
B). A person can experience arousal and interpret those
feelings as arousal at the same time
C). An event causes arousal first, and then the person has to
label this arousal
D). Exposing people to torture videos (compared to videos
about nature) will increase their feelings of arousal (as
measured by heart rates and breathing rates)
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself!
4
 Which of the following best represents a hypothesis involving
emotion? The first three are actual emotion theories!
A). A person experiences physiological arousal first, and then
interpret those feelings as arousal (Schachter-Singer Theory)
B). A person can experience arousal and interpret those
feelings as arousal at the same time (Cannon-Bard Theory)
C). An event causes arousal first, and then the person has to
label this arousal (James Lange Theory)
D). Exposing people to torture videos (compared to videos
about nature) will increase their feelings of arousal (as
measured by heart rates and breathing rates) – Very specific!
Part Two
Developing A Research Question
Developing a Research Question
1
 In this section, we will try to understand the (deceptively) easy way
to ask research questions. We will cover …
1). Research topics vs. research questions
2). Finding the right research question
3). Asking the right research question
Developing a Research Question
2
 1). Research topics versus empirical research questions
I want to emphasize the difference between a research topic
and a research question
– A research topic is a general phenomenon of interest, such
as false confessions, learning disabilities, memory, etc.
Research topics can come from personal experience, an
investigator’s theory, or ideas brought up through other’s
research ideas. But it is a topic, and thus very general
– An empirical research question, on the other hand, specifies
what we want to study more specifically, suggesting the key
concepts we need to know (it is, in essence, a hypothesis)
Developing a Research Question
3
 1). Research topics versus empirical research questions
I want to emphasize the difference between a research topic
and a research question
– In this class, I gave you a topic and a research question for
your study, but pay close attention to how to develop such
questions on your own!
– So let’s try to figure out what a research question entails
Developing a Research Question
4
 2). Finding the right research question
A research question is an easy concept to understand in that it
is simply a statement about expected outcomes (though that
term “question” is a bit of a misnomer, as a research question
does NOT end in a question mark)
But at the same time, it is very hard, since creating the right
question and forming that question into a researchable focus
requires time and experience
– A research question requires clarity, which relies on having
background knowledge about the topic you want to study
Developing a Research Question
5
 2). Finding the right research question
Research questions often come from an area interesting to the
researcher.
– For example, my own research interest is in the field of legal
psychology. I may want to know “Whether juror verdicts are
more influenced by pro-prosecution pretrial publicity or prodefense pretrial publicity” (that is, is there any evidence
jurors hear about before the trial that may influence them)
– This research interest, unfortunately, does not quite get us
to a research question
– Let’s look at a more specific pretrial-publicity hypothesis:
Developing a Research Question
6
 2). Finding the right research question
A more specific pretrial-publicity hypothesis:
– “Jurors who are exposed to pretrial publicity that favors the
prosecution will be more likely to convict the defendant than
jurors who are exposed to pretrial publicity that favors the
defendant.”
Here, jury verdicts are the outcome I am interested in, or
the dependent variable (the DV)
Pro-prosecution vs. pro-defense pretrial publicity is the
manipulated variable, the independent variable (the IV)
Developing a Research Question
7
 2). Finding the right research question
A more specific pretrial-publicity hypothesis:
– Break this down in terms of an “If A, Then B” format
“IF jurors are exposed to pro-prosecution pretrial publicity,
THEN they will favor of the prosecution”
“IF jurors are exposed to pro-defense pretrial publicity,
THEN they will favor of the defense”
– Now, put it together: “IF jurors are exposed to pro-prosecution
pretrial publicity, THEN they will favor of the prosecution more
than IF they are exposed to pro-defense pretrial publicity”
Developing a Research Question
8
 3). Asking the right research question
There are several components to asking the right research
question. Before we discuss them, think about the question
below, and try to figure out if it is a good or bad question
– “If jurors hear Inadmissible Evidence (I-E) that is relevant to
the defendant’s guilt, they will find the defendant more guilty
when the inadmissible evidence is obtained in violation of
the defendant’s civil rights OR ruled admissible than if it is
based on a poor audio-quality wiretap.”
– I will refer to this as the “I-E Hypothesis” in future slides
Developing a Research Question
9
 3). Asking the right research question – Elements to consider …
A. Is the research question clearly stated?
B. Is the research question researchable and testable?
C. Are concepts in the question operationally defined?
D. Does the question note the unit of analysis?
E. Does it specify the expected relationship?
F. Does it focus on outcomes (the DV)?
G. Does it involve contrasts that are made specific?
H. Does it specify conditions regarding the relationship?
I. Does it stem from an idea or theory?
Developing a Research Question
10
 3). Asking the right research question
A. Is the research question clearly stated?
– Bad: “I wonder how inadmissible evidence influences jurors”
– Better: “Does the type of inadmissible evidence (bad quality
vs. obtained by violating civil rights) influence juror verdicts”
Of course, you have to define
what you mean by “influence”
– Recall the I-E hypothesis: It is
stated much more clearly than
both of the hypotheses above
Developing a Research Question
11
 3). Asking the right research question
B. A good research question is researchable and testable
– That is, it must be an answerable question
“Is the death penalty fair?” is a bad question
It is not answerable
“Why do death penalty proponents think the death
penalty is fair?” is much better,
because it can lead to testable
studies. But there is still room for
improvement, right!
Developing a Research Question
12
 3). Asking the right research question
C. Good research questions point to important concepts that
can be clearly defined (or operationally defined)
– Let’s say you think jurors with low self-esteem will cave into
the majority opinion easier than jurors with high self-esteem
Now, define self-esteem! Hard, right!
Concepts must be measurable, or you
must define them so other researchers
know what you are talking about
Even the I-E hypothesis needs to
define “bad audio quality”
Developing a Research Question
13
 3). Asking the right research question
D. Good research questions will define the units of analysis (or
cases) to which it applies
– Can be based on individuals (jurors) or groups (a whole jury)
– Three things are useful when determining units of analysis:
What kind of case: Mothers, defendants, judges, juries?
Where are the cases: Kendall, Miami, Florida, Southern
District, the entire USA?
When are these cases: Now, the future, the past?
– The I-E hypothesis could be more specific here as well
Developing a Research Question
14
 3). Asking the right research question
E. Good research questions specify expected relationships
– Often an expected relationship focuses on how one thing
influences another
Example: How an officer handles a domestic violence
call may impact whether the offender does it again
Arresting an abuser may lead
to fewer future incidents than
giving him a simple warning
Arrests decrease future behavior
(see the relationship!)
Developing a Research Question
15
 3). Asking the right research question
F. Good research question focuses on outcomes (DV’s) or, at
minimum, indicates the outcome of interest
– Bad: “What influence does poor self-concept have?”
“Have” on what? This is a bad question because there is
no limit to the range of potential outcomes, and thus no
end to the research. After all, it could lead to depression
or helping behavior!
Developing a Research Question
16
 3). Asking the right research question
G. Good research questions involve explicit contrasts
– They might contrast female jurors versus male jurors; proprosecution jurors versus pro-defense; eyewitnesses with
good views versus those with bad views; etc.
– Our I-E Hypothesis does a good job of this
Those given admissible evidence or evidence ruled
inadmissible due to civil right
violations will convict more than
those given inadmissible evidence
that is poor in audio quality.
Developing a Research Question
17
 3). Asking the right research question
H. Research questions should specify the conditions under
which the relationships are expected to emerge
– For example, arresting spousal abusers will only decrease
future acts of violence if the abuser is rich, lives in a family
based neighborhood, and is taken into custody in view of
friends or neighbors
+
=
Developing a Research Question
18
 3). Asking the right research question
I. Finally, good research questions are often those that stem
from some idea or theory you have about important things
– May come from you or others.
– A great way to start is by looking at the work of others
Developing a Research Question
19
 3). Asking the right research question – To sum up
Good research questions are clearly stated, researchable
questions involving important concepts that are related to a
theory
Good research questions apply a case or unit of analysis,
involves comparison and contrasts, focuses on outcomes, and
may also specify independent variables and conditions that
govern expected relationships between concepts
The I-E hypothesis comes close, but it needs clarification in
some areas. For now, let’s look at some bad questions
Developing a Research Question
20
 3). Asking the right research question – Why is this question poor?
“Eyewitnesses at crime scenes”
– Poor because: this is a topic, not a research question
“I think jurors are basically honest decision-makers”
– Poor because: this isn’t a question, merely an opinion
“How do ghosts eat?”
– Poor because: it isn’t researchable, it is ambiguous
“What is the impact of city size?”
– Poor because: asks only about an IV and doesn’t limit DVs
Developing a Research Question
22
 3). Asking the right research question – Why is this question poor?
“Do eyewitnesses incorporate new info into their memories”
– Poor because: it’s a good question, but has been answered
already – expand on it more
“Why do people commit crimes?”
– Poor because: It’s too broad to be answered in a lifetime –
focus more
“How can psychologists influence the jury system”
– Poor because: It’s also too broad, though it might lead to
researchable questions if it can be narrowed down
Developing a Research Question
23
 3). Asking the right research question – One final example
Pate and Hamilton (1992) were interested in whether police
action deters repeated domestic violence
– They based their idea on deterrence theory: human actions
are influenced by factors like formal punishments contained
in the laws and enforced by police
More specifically, illegal behavior is discouraged when
penalties are severe and highly likely to be applied.
This is fine, but the authors wondered about the impact
of informal punishments as well. Might those help?
Developing a Research Question
24
 3). Asking the right research question – Deterrence theory
Pate and Hamilton revised deterrence theory, speculating that
informal sanctions (e.g. shaming, lost attachments to others, or
loss of jobs) can enhance the effectiveness of formal sanctions
They predicted that increasing formal and informal sanctions
would be most effective at reducing domestic violence
Consider their
research question
(hypothesis) …
Developing a Research Question
25
 3). Asking the right research question – Deterrence theory
“An abusing partner will be less likely to recidivate if subjected
to both formal and informal sanctions than if only experiencing
one form of sanction.”
– First, the research question is clearly stated
– Second, the research question is testable
– Third, the researchers still need to clearly define what they
mean by “formal and informal” sanctions
– Fourth, the research includes specific cases, or units of
analysis: the spouse and abusing partner
Developing a Research Question
26
 3). Asking the right research question – Deterrence theory
“An abusing partner will be less likely to recidivate if subjected
to both formal and informal sanctions than if only experiencing
one form of sanction.”
– Fifth, the question focuses on expected relationships
– Sixth, the question focuses on outcomes
– Seventh, the question involves contrasts
– Eighth, the question specifies conditions
– Ninth, the question stems from ideas / theory
Note, of course, that many of these are implied in the question
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself!
5
 Think about the research question: “An abusing partner will be
less likely to recidivate if subjected to both formal and informal
sanctions than if only experiencing one form of sanction.” What
is the independent variable in this research question?
A). Whether the abusing partner “recidivates” (i.e. acts violent
again) or does not recidivate
B). Whether the victim retaliates against the abuser
C). Whether the abuser experiences two sanctions (formal and
informal) or only one sanction (either formal OR informal)
D). This question does not provide enough information to figure
out the independent variable
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself!
6
 Think about the research question: “An abusing partner will be
less likely to recidivate if subjected to both formal and informal
sanctions than if only experiencing one form of sanction.” What
is the independent variable in this research question?
A). Whether the abusing partner “recidivates” (i.e. acts violent
again) or does not recidivate
B). Whether the victim retaliates against the abuser
C). Whether the abuser experiences two sanctions (formal and
informal) or only one sanction (either formal OR informal)
D). This question does not provide enough information to figure
out the independent variable
Pause Problem #2
1
 Pause-Problem #2 (Your Lab Study)
For this Pause-Problem, look at your lab hypothesis for study
one. Does it meet / not meet these? If not, tell me how to fix it?
– A. Is the research question clearly stated?
– B. Is the research question researchable and testable?
– C. Are concepts in the question operationally defined?
– D. Does the question note the unit of analysis?
#2
Continued next slide …
Pause Problem #2
2
 Pause-Problem #2 (Your Lab Study)
For this Pause-Problem, look at your lab hypothesis for study
one. Does it meet / not meet these? If not, tell me how to fix it?
– E. Does it specify the expected relationship?
– F. Does it focus on outcomes (the DV)?
– G. Does it involve contrasts that are made specific?
– H. Does it specify conditions regarding the relationship?
– I. Does it stem from an idea or theory?
#2
Part Three
Surveying the Psychological Literature
Surveying the Psychological Literature
1
 The road to answering research questions starts with the literature
A literature review often provides researchers with info about
– what has been done
– how others theoretically approached their work
– what concepts were important to them
– how they defined their measures and concepts
– what questions remain to be answered
– whether new methods are needed to get at answers
In this class, we are going to focus on two different kinds of
literature sources – primary sources and secondary sources
Surveying the Psychological Literature
 1). Primary Sources: These contain a full research report
All of the information needed to duplicate the study
The rational of their study
Participants in their study
Materials / apparatus
Their procedure
Their results
Their conclusions
Their references
2
Surveying the Psychological Literature
3
 1). Primary Sources – Journals
Journals tend to be more current than books, giving the newest
research in the field (the zeitgeist)
Refereed journals are heavily reviewed by editors / reviewers,
so quality tends to be high
– These peer-reviewed journals are the ones I
want you to focus on in your papers!
There are also non-refereed journals, but these
may not be as credible as refereed journals
Surveying the Psychological Literature
4
 2). Secondary sources summarize the info of primary sources
Overview papers (including law reviews)
Books
Popular magazines
Newspaper articles
Television
Movies
Lectures
Surveying the Psychological Literature
5
 2). Secondary sources summarize the info of primary sources
A problem in secondary sources is that you cannot be sure that
they are accurate. The person summarizing them might have
been biased. They might have filtered the information, omitting
facts that didn’t agree with or fit with their argument
Surveying the Psychological Literature
6
 2). Secondary sources – Books
General textbooks
Anthologies (or edited books)
Books do not undergo rigorous reviews like primary resources
Surveying the Psychological Literature
7
 2). Secondary sources – Conferences
Information might come from conference presentations
– Paper Sessions
– Poster Sessions
The information here can be very high or low quality – it has a
huge range, since they are not rigorously evaluated by peers
Great opportunity to interact with the researcher and learn!
Surveying the Psychological Literature
 2). Secondary sources – Other sources
Technical reports from agencies
Personal communications
Dissertations
The internet
Again, quality ranges
8
Surveying the Psychological Literature
 Finding resources
PsycINFO
PsycARTICLES (APA Journals only)
JSTOR
General Internet
Books and “on-hand” library resources
9
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself
7
 Which of the following sources do I prefer you use for your
class experimental study?
A). Primary sources
B). Secondary sources
C). Both of the above
D). None of the above
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself
8
 Which of the following sources do I prefer you use for your
class experimental study?
A). Primary sources
B). Secondary sources
C). Both of the above
D). None of the above
Section B
Salkind (Chapter 7)
Part One Salkind
So You Want To Be A Scientist?
So You Want To Be A Scientist
1
 Salkind and hypotheses
As Salkind notes (and yes, we are skipping ahead in that book
and taking a brief break from the CourSe PowerPoints), a
hypothesis is basically an educated guess, with the emphasis
on educated!
– There’s a method to the madness when it come to both
testing and creating hypotheses. As we saw in in the CPP
chapters, if our hypothesis isn’t focused and testable, it
gives us little value
So You Want To Be A Scientist
2
 Samples and Populations
An important aspect of hypotheses that we mentioned is the
relationship between the sample and the population from which
we draw that sample
It would be cool if we could test everyone in the population. We
would know exactly how the study applies to everyone!
Yet testing everyone is nearly impossible, so sampling is often
our best chance for understanding a phenomenon
So You Want To Be A Scientist
3
 Samples and Populations
This begs the question, “How well does our sample represent
the population?” This is an excellent question (which we will get
to in a few weeks)
– If the sample in our study differs from the population, then
any conclusions we make with regard to our study will not
be relevant outside of that sample
– For now, recognize that the more dissimilar our sample is
from the population, the more error we introduce into our
study design. This leads to what we term “Sampling Error”
Part Two Salkind
The Null Hypothesis
The Null Hypothesis
1
 At this point in your research methodology career, you should be
able to define the term “null hypothesis” in your sleep!
But for those in need of a brief reminder, the null hypothesis is
essentially the expectation of a “null” result
– That is, we expect no difference between study conditions
(or, to put it another way, we expect that two or more things
are “equal or unrelated” to each other)
The Null Hypothesis
2
 The purpose of the null hypothesis is relatively simple
First, it gives us a good starting point in hypothesis creation
– Absent any information, we assume things are equal. Until
we can show a difference, we assume no differences
Second, if there is a difference, we look for the most attractive
explanation for the difference – chance!
Finally, we use the null as the comparison for our actual
hypothesis
The Null Hypothesis
3
 The purpose of the null hypothesis is relatively simple
Keep in mind that the null hypothesis is rarely written out in
research articles. It is an underlying assumption in research,
thus you will hardly ever see it explicitly stated in your readings
The null hypothesis is often expressed in the equation
HO: µ1 = µ1
– HO represents the null hypothesis
– µ1 represents the group 1 population
– µ1 represents the group 1 population
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself
9
 Which of the following would be a null hypothesis?
A). The experimental group will perform better than the control
group.
B). The experimental group will perform the same as the
control group
C). The experimental group will perform worse than the control
group
D). None of the above
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself
10
 Which of the following would be a null hypothesis?
A). The experimental group will perform better than the control
group.
B). The experimental group will perform the same as the
control group
C). The experimental group will perform worse than the control
group
D). None of the above
Part Three Salkind
The Research (Alternative) Hypothesis
The Research Hypothesis
1
 The alternative research hypothesis is … the research hypothesis!
As we saw in the CPP material, the research hypothesis is a
statement that a relationship exists between variables and / or
groups
If you recall from Research Methods and Design One, we can
break the alternative research hypothesis down into to types:
– 1). Non-directional hypotheses
– 2). Directional hypotheses
The Research Hypothesis
2
 1). A non-directional research hypothesis reflects differences
between groups, but it does not specify a direction
For example, a non-directional hypothesis would be …
– “The paper grades for students who go to the FIU Research
Methods Help Center (using Adobe Connect in blackboard)
will differ from the paper grades of students who do not go
to the FIU Research Methods Help Center”
The groups differ, but we don’t specify whether differences are
“higher” or “lower” for the experimental group versus the control
(comparison) group
The Research Hypothesis
3
 1). A non-directional research hypothesis reflects differences
between groups, but it does not specify a direction
Non-directional hypotheses often use the equation
H1: X1 ≠ X2
H1 represents the hypothesis (maybe one many hypotheses)
X1 represents the group average (mean) for the first sample
X2 represents the group average (mean) for the second sample
In multiple group designs, we can have H1: X1 ≠ X2 ≠ X3 …
The Research Hypothesis
4
 2). A directional research hypothesis reflects differences between
groups, but it does specify a direction
For example, a directional hypothesis would be …
– “The paper grades for students who go to the FIU Research
Methods Help Center (using Adobe Connect in blackboard)
will be higher than the paper grades of students who do not
go to the FIU Research Methods Help Center”
Here, one group is hypothesized to be higher than the other
group, not merely differ (we could also hypothesize they would
be lower, but I think the Methods Help center actually helps!)
The Research Hypothesis
5
 2). A directional research hypothesis reflects differences between
groups, but it does specify a direction
Directional hypothesis often use the equation(s)
H1: X1 > X2
H1: X1 < X2 H1 represents the (possibly first of many) research hypothesis X1 represents the group average (mean) for the first sample X2 represents the group average (mean) for the second sample Multiple group designs can get creative- H1: X1 < X2 ≠ X3 … The Research Hypothesis 6  One versus two tailed tests As you saw in Research Methods and Design One, we use … – Non-directional hypotheses for two-tailed tests (we test if one group is better OR worse than a comparison group) – Directional hypotheses for one-tailed tests (one group is better than another OR one group is worse than another) – We saw this in Chapter 9 (Salkind) last semester, so go back and review that chapter if you need a brief review!) Pause Problem #3  Pause-Problem #3 (Hypotheses) For this Pause-Problem, I want you to come up with a brief study idea unrelated to the one you are doing in your lab. – First, give me a directional hypothesis for this study – Second, give me a non-directional hypothesis #3 The Research Hypothesis 8  Differences between \null and research hypotheses. Three things: First, the null hypothesis specifies no relationship between groups while the research hypothesis specifies a difference Second, the null hypothesis refers to the population (hence the use of the Greek symbol µ). The research hypothesis focuses on the sample (and uses the Roman symbol X). Third, since we cannot test everyone in the population, we test a sample. We then infer based on the sample responses how the population would respond IF we did actually test them all Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself 11  Which of the following types of hypotheses is considered an implied hypothesis? A). The null hypothesis B). The alternative hypothesis C). The research hypothesis D). None of the above Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself 12  Which of the following types of hypotheses is considered an implied hypothesis? A). The null hypothesis B). The alternative hypothesis C). The research hypothesis D). None of the above Part Four What Makes a Good Hypothesis? What Makes A Good Hypothesis? 1  We discussed this before in Part Two of this lecture, so I’ll just list the elements Salkind notes as important 1). A good hypothesis is stated in declarative form (not as an actual question). It’s a statement! 2). A good hypothesis posits an expected relationship between variables 3). A good hypotheses reflects the theory or literature on which they are based What Makes A Good Hypothesis? 2  We discussed this before in Part Two of this lecture, so I’ll just list the elements Salkind notes as important 4). A good hypothesis should be brief and to the point 5). A good hypothesis is testable Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself 13  Which of the following represents a null hypothesis? A). H1: X1 < X2 B). H0: m1 = m2 C). H1: m1 > m2
D). H1: X1 = X2
Pop Quiz – Quiz Yourself
14
 Which of the following represents a null hypothesis?
A). H1: X1 < X2 B). H0: m1 = m2 C). H1: m1 > m2
D). H1: X1 = X2
Section C
An Eye Toward The Future
Pause Problem #4
 Here is your last Pause-Problem #4 (Pop Quiz)
#4
You’ll get to know this slide pretty well this semester!
For your last Pause-Problem, I want YOU to write a multiple
choice pop-quiz question based on the content of this chapter. I
might use your question on a future pop quiz or actual course
exam (though not this semester), so make it good! Make sure
to include your correct answer and up to five possible answers!
An Eye Toward The Future
1
 Now that you have a better idea about hypotheses, I want you to
really focus on the hypothesis for your first study this semester
Does your study hypothesis make sense in light of what we
discussed here?
More important, in a month or two YOU are going to come up
with a hypothesis for your study two. Start thinking about new
variables that you might want to include in your future study,
and imagine what your hypotheses will look like!
An Eye Toward The Future
2
 For our next class, we are going to focus on some basic elements
of statistics, reviewing some of the information that you learned in
Research Methods and Design One
Read over Chapter F (CPP) for our next lecture
– As a forewarning, Chapter F is VERY, VERY long. I would
recommend that you get a head start on reading. You can
break it into smaller portions, as it has close to 200 slides
An Eye Toward The Future
3
 For our next class, we are going to focus on some basic elements
of statistics, reviewing some of the information that you learned in
Research Methods and Design One
On your own, I’d also like you to look over Chapter 19 in your
Salkind textbook, which talks about various statistical software
programs. Although we will only use SPSS in this course, I
want you to see that there are lots of packages out there, some
free and some expensive!
– No exam questions for Chapter 19, but great info there!
An Eye Toward The Future
4
 As usual, it is VERY, VERY, VERY important for you to read your
lab presentation immediately. Since many of your papers are
based on content covered in the lab, you need to know about that
content sooner rather than later
APA Style: 7th Edition
Week 1b Lab: Writing and Assembling an
APA-Format Research Report
(With Methods Two Updates)
Overview of This Chapter
1
 This chapter is nearly identical to the one you read in Methods
One, but there one key difference
In Methods One, you critiqued a research article that someone
else wrote, writing your critique in APA format.
In Methods Two, YOU will be writing the research article. As
such, this current presentation will help you with your paper.
The content is nearly identical to the presentation from Methods
One, but you still need to know (and apply) that content to your
Methods Two papers.
Overview of This Chapter
2
 I’m not going to lie – this chapter is long, a bit repetitive in places,
and isn’t the most interesting material we will cover (Sorry!)
 Yet it is VERY important, as you will learn the mechanics of writing
a paper in APA format. You’ll use the tips here as you write your
paper(s) in Research Methods and Design II as well as in other
psychology courses you take!
Overview of This Chapter
3
 The final good news is that I will give you most of the information
you need within this presentation, where we will focus on …
Part One: What is APA Format?
Part Two: Sections of the APA-Formatted Paper
Part Three: Writing in APA Style
Part Four: Plagiarism
Part Five: Your Methods Two Papers
Part Six: An Eye Toward The Future
Part One
What is APA Format?
What is APA Format?
1
 APA Format is the accepted American Psychological Association
format for preparing reports describing psychological research
It relies extensively on the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (now in the 7th Edition). I strongly
recommend you purchase this manual.
There are different guidelines for student papers and
professional papers (for publication).
This course uses the professional guidelines (they
are not really that different, so don’t worry about
the differences).
Part Two
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
1
 Essentially, the purpose behind an empirical research report is to
inform the reader about
What you did
Why you did it
What you found out
What your findings mean
What you have concluded
 Think about an hourglass
The Hourglass Approach
General
1
2
3
4
5
6
Specific
7
8
9
10
11
12
General
Title & Abstract
1. Identify problem & state importance
2. Review relevant research literature
3. Identify a gap or “research space”
4. State research aim – fill in the gap
5. Indicate choice of approach/method
6. Empirical & original part of a study
7. Results and Interpretation
8. Match results to research questions
9. Implications for specific knowledge
10. Broader implications for your field
11. Recommendations for the future
12. Conclusion & References
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
2
 I want to show you the various sections of an APA format paper,
including:
The title page
The abstract
The literature review
The methods section
The results section
The discussion section
The references
The appendices
Check out Part Six in
this presentation for
help setting up
Microsoft word to
accommodate APA
formatting!
The Title Page
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
3
 Title Page: The first page of an APA-Format Paper. It starts on
page 1 and includes …
The header
– This is often a shortened version of your title, written in ALL
CAPS
– It is left justified (that is, it is flush left at the top of the page)
– It is 50 characters or less (including spaces / punctuation)
Page number (present in the header)
– Right justified (flush right at the top of the page)
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
4
 Title Page: The first page of an APA-Format Paper. It starts on
page 1 and includes …
Article Title: The full title of your paper
– Capitalize the first letter of all words that are four or more
letters long. It should be midway down the page
Author Names:
– All authors are listed (this is YOUR NAME for this course)
Author Institution:
– Florida International University
Header. A shorter version of your title in ALL CAPS that is 50
characters or less! Include this “header” in your document.
Page Number
4 lines down
from the top of
the page (double
space, then hit
“enter” 4 times)
One extra space
here (hit “enter”
once)
*note: everything is double spaced! Even the ”extra
spaces” are measured by double spaced format.
Your
name!
Title.
Capitalized,
bold, centered
Note: DO NOT
put a title with
your Methods
Two name in it.
That is, no
“Paper One for
Methods Two”
titles. Rather,
describe your
specific study
The Abstract
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
5
 Abstract: This is a brief description of the research in APA format
Information about the problem
Information about the participants
Information about the experimental method
Information about the findings
Information about the conclusions
The Abstract starts on its own page, and the word is centered
and in bold
Sections of the APA-Format Paper
6
 Abstract: Fitting a lot of information into an itsy-bitsy space
How do you take a whole research paper and narrow it down to
around 150-200 words?
That is, how do you get the gist of your paper across to readers
who may only read the abstract when deciding to read the rest
of your paper?
– This is tougher than it looks!
– Consider the following abstract …
The Abstract – Sample
1
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
The Abstract – Sample
2
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
The research “problem” is in blue above
The Abstract – Sample
3
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
The participants are in blue above
The Abstract – Sample
4
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
The experimental method and predictions are in blue above
The Abstract – Sample
5
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
The findings are in blue above
The Abstract – Sample
6
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
The conclusions are in blue above
The Abstract – Sample
7
Terror Management Theory (TMT) contends that thinking about mortality
can cause debilitating fears in people, which may interfere with their daily
lives. However, this “terror” is avoidable: people can buffer death-related
thoughts by increasing their reliance on safe, stable, and context-relevant
attitudes (Cultural Worldviews). Using 130 undergraduates, we examined
the influence of TMT on sexual harassment decisions, focusing on hostile
sexist attitudes as our CWV. We predicted that mortality salience would
increase hostile sexist attitudes, leading participant’s to find less Hostile
Work Environment Sexual Harassment. Although mortality salience did
not interact with hostile sexism, mortality salient participants did find more
harassment than control participants. These results suggest that hostile
sexism may not be an adequate sexual harassment Cultural Worldview.
119 words!
The Introduction
(or Literature Review)
Introduction
1
 Introduction: The first major section of the APA-format paper
The introduction contains a review of the literature, providing
examples of prior studies that support your hypotheses
– An introduction contains the thesis statement (that is, the
hypothesis): A statement of the general research topic of
interest and the perceived relation of relevant variables in
that area
The hypothesis can come anywhere in your literature
review, but you often see it at the end after the author
has talked about several prior research studies. For our
class, the best place for it is in the last intro paragraph
Introduction
2
 Introduction: The setup
The introduction starts on its own page, just after the Abstract.
– Your first paper for Methods Two may not include an
abstract. After all, your first paper might be a literature
review for a study you have not yet run. Since an Abstract
requires a synopsis of your results, you cannot write it until
after you have your results done, so you can ignore the
abstract … for now!
– Instead, your literature review will probably start on page 2
This header goes on every page
The body
of your
paper
begins here
on the next
line. Indent
all
paragraphs.
Page # (it will be page 3 if you have
an abstract, page 2 if you do not)
You repeat
the title of
your paper
here.
Centered
& bold
Citations
1
 Introduction: Some information about citations
Citations are often difficult for students, so pay close attention!
– We’ll spend several minutes on citations here, but there is
something I want to make really clear
Citations and references are different things
Citations are used in the main body of the paper and
refer to the work of another person, and include
ONLY author last names and the publication date
References come at the end of the paper, and
include names, dates, journal names, article titles,
etc. We’ll get to references later. For now …
Citations
2
 Introduction: Some information about citations
Citations are often difficult for students, so pay close attention!
– When you refer to something that sounds like a factual claim
in your literature review, you need to provide a citation for it.
– Research articles are not opinion-based. They use prior
research and make “educated assumptions” about potential
study outcomes, but they must have a good empirical
foundation for those educated guesses
Citations
3
 Introduction: Some information about citations
Citations are often difficult for students, so pay close attention!
– ANY time you relay information that you got from another
source, you MUST cite that source.
– You cite when you need to give proper credit for the ideas
presented by someone else.
Citations
4
 Introduction: Some information about citations: Two ways to cite
1). Within the text of a sentence:
– Here, you can mention the author by name in the sentence
Smith (2018) conducted a study….
– If there are two authors, write the word “and” between the
author names (Never write & in the body of a sentence)
Parker and Smith (2008) found that….
– The year goes in parentheses after the name(s)
Gonzales et al. (2015) agree that…
Citations
5
 Introduction: Some information about citations: Two ways to cite
2). In parentheses at the end of a sentence:
– Mention author by name at the end of a sentence.
Anxious adolescents tend to experience social distress
(Parker, 2008).
– With only two authors, use & between the names
Anxious adolescents tend to experience social distress
(Parker & Smith, 2008).
– With three or more authors, use the phrase et al.
Anxious adolescents tend to experience social distress
(Parker et al., 2008).
Citations
6
 We don’t use the first names of authors we cite in the introduction,
just their last names (Smith & Jones, 2005).
Occasionally you will see a literature review that includes the
first name of an author in a citation, but I recommend against
this. Stick with JUST last names
Just as an example, think about the sentence “Research by
Ivan Pavlov (1903) shows just how classical condition impacts
dog salivation”. This is okay, but I REALLY prefer “Research by
Pavlov (1903) shows …”
Citations
7
 We don’t use the first names of authors we cite in the introduction,
just their last names (Smith & Jones, 2005).
While you might occasionally see a first name mentioned in a
sentence, you will NEVER use it within parentheses
That is, (Smith & Jones, 2005) is perfect, but (Brandon Smith &
Bridget Jones, 2005) is NOT okay
Likewise, initials should never be used in citations. That is, (B.
R. Smith & B. C. Jones, 2015) is NOT okay either
Citations
8
 WRONG: A study by (Smith and Jones, 2010) found that
 What is wrong with this citation? What’s the right way to do it?
Citations
9
 CORRECT: Smith and Jones (2010) found that …
OR
 CORRECT: Blah blah interesting research finding blah blah (Smith
& Jones, 2010).
 Okay, the next slide is a tough one. Why is it wrong? …
Citations
10
 WRONG: A study by (Smith & Jones, 2010) found that 2 + 2 = 4.
Notice the parentheses above, and how the names are inside
the parentheses. In scientific writing, items within parentheses
“supplement” the sentence content.
– Read the citation from Smith and Jones, but this time ignore
everything inside the parentheses. Does the sentence “A
study by found that 2 + 2 = 4.” make any sense? Nope!
– “A study by Smith and Jones (2010) found that 2 + 2 = 4.” is
better. Reading it without the date, you still have, “A study
by Smith and Jones found that 2 + 2 = 4.”
Citations
11
 WRONG: A study by (Smith & Jones, 2010) found that 2 + 2 = 4.
Notice the parentheses above, and how the names are inside
the parentheses. In scientific writing, items within parentheses
“supplement” the sentence content.
– The moral here is that you need to read your sentence. If
the author(s) name is a part of the sentence, the name goes
outside of the parentheses (only the date goes within). If the
name is not needed for the sentence to make sense, then
put it inside the parentheses
Citations
12
 The parentheses also alter how you use the word “and”. In text, we
use the ampersand symbol &, but ONLY if author names appears
within ( ). Otherwise, use the word “and”
For example:
– GOOD: Smith and Jones (2005) found that …
– GOOD: Other researchers refute these findings (Smith &
Jones, 2005).
– BAD: Smith & Jones (2005) found that …
– BAD: Others refute these (Smith and Jones, 2005).
Citations
13
 Do NOT include the title of an article you read in the body of a
paper. Titles are only present in the reference section
GOOD: “Research by Smith and Davis (2005) says …”
BAD: “In the article, “The implications of research” by Smith
and Davis (2005), the authors say …
Pop Quiz: Test Yourself!
1
 Which of the following is a proper citation?
A). In a study by Richardson and Fryer (2005), the authors …
B). In a study by Richardson & Fryer (2005), the authors …
C). A prior study supports this idea – Richardson & Fryer, 2005.
D). A prior study supports this idea (Gary Richardson & John
Fryer, 2005).
Pop Quiz: Test Yourself!
2
 Which of the following is a proper citation?
A). In a study by Richardson and Fryer (2005), the authors …
B). In a study by Richardson & Fryer (2005), the authors …
C). A prior study supports this idea – Richardson & Fryer, 2005.
D). A prior study supports this idea (Gary Richardson & John
Fryer, 2005).
Citations
14
 What if the article has a bunch of authors–do I have to list all the
authors every time I cite the paper?
“According to McMaster, Paulson, Ashton, Corben, and Richards
(2015), research involves …”
Nope! Let’s look at the rules for this…
Citations
15
 When there are one or two authors:
List the author(s) every time you cite the study.
– One author: Velez (2012) found that …
– Two authors: Smith and Parker (2013) found that …
 When there are three or more authors:
List only the first author, followed by et al.
– Parker et al. (2014) also found that…
– OR Blah blah blah blah interesting sentence about research
(Parker et al., 2014).
Citations
16
 When there are one or two authors:
List the author(s) every time you cite the study.
– One author: Velez (2012) found that …
– Two authors: Smith and Parker (2013) found that …
 When there are three or more authors:
Note: there is
always a period
List only the first author, followed by et al.
after the “al.”
– Parker et al. (2014) also found that…
– OR Blah blah blah blah interesting sentence about research
(Parker et al., 2014).
When citing in parentheses, use a
comma after the “al.” as well
Pop Quiz: Test Yourself!
3
 If citing a study for the first time, which of the following would
be okay?
A). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, and Reed
(2017), research …
B). According to Myers et al. (2017), research …
C). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, & Reed
(2017), research …
D). According to Myers and Downy et al. (2017), research …
Pop Quiz: Test Yourself!
4
 If citing a study for the first time, which of the following would
be okay?
A). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, and Reed
(2017), research …
B). According to Myers et al. (2017), research …
C). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, & Reed
(2017), research …
D). According to Myers and Downy et al. (2017), research …
Pop Quiz: Test Yourself!
5
 If citing a study for the second time, which of the following
would be okay?
A). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, and Reed
(2017), research …
B). According to Myers et al. (2017), research …
C). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, & Reed
(2017), research …
D). According to Myers and Downy et al. (2017), research …
Pop Quiz: Test Yourself!
6
 If citing a study for the second time, which of the following
would be okay?
A). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, and Reed
(2017), research …
B). According to Myers et al. (2017), research …
C). According to Myers, Downy, McCaulif, Sheers, & Reed
(2017), research …
D). According to Myers and Downy et al. (2017), research …
Citations
17
 Introduction: Some information about citations
Just a few more items I want to discussion regarding citations
– The citations in your literature review and the references in
the References section MUST match
If you cite a source, then that source MUST be included
in the Reference section. If it is in the References pages,
it MUST be cited somewhere in the main paper!
This will be easy in your papers, as you will simply cite
the articles that you actually read. Make sure that your
citations/references are correct!
Quotes
1
 Introduction: Some information about quotations (and citations)
Last thing in this section. Let’s talk quotes!
– First, I have to admit that I am not a fan of quotes. You
should quote ONLY as a last resort (when an author says
something that you simply cannot say any better!)
My preference is always on paraphrasing, something we
will discuss a lot more in in Part 7 of this presentation
– However, if you must quote, then you MUST do it properly.
So here are the rules …
Quotes
2
 Introduction: Some information about quotations (and citations)
Last thing in this section. Let’s talk quotes! The Rules
– 1. Direct quotations: If you directly quote, then your citation
must include the author, year, and page number
 “It was a masterful quote!” (Devlin, 2004, p. 18).
Notice I used quote marks around the quoted phrase
– 2. Block quotations: If you are quoting more than 40 words
from a source, give the quote its own paragraph and indent
(no quotation marks needed). That is …
Quotes
3
 Introduction: Some information about quotations (and citations)
Last thing in this section. Let’s talk quotes! The Rules
In his paper, Miele (1993) found the following:
The “placebo effect,” which had been verified in previous
studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this
manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited
again [italics added], even when reel [sic] drugs were
administered. (p. 276)
Notice the quote
In other words, Miele was interested in …
is “full justified”
Quotes
4
 Introduction: Some information about quotations (and citations)
Last thing in this section. Let’s talk quotes!
– 3. Sparing use of quotations: You know when I said I hated
quotes. Well, I do! Try to paraphrase rather than directly
quote. Few published papers use a lot of direct quotes
In this class, you may only use one direct quote per page
without being penalized. I actually prefer no more than
two quotes for the entire paper.
The Methods Section
The Methods Section
1
 Methods Section: Second major section of the APA-format paper
Contains information about the participants in the study
– Includes the number of participants, the age range and the
mean / standard deviation for age, as well as number of men
and women and a breakdown of ethnicity
Notes the apparatus, materials, and/or testing instruments you
used in the study
– Any special equipment, scales, slides, videos, etc. must be
thoroughly described. It must be written as if the reader is
encountering the study for the first time but they want to
replicate it. They need enough details to do so!
The Methods Section
2
 Methods Section: Second major section of the APA-format paper
The methods section also contains a section on the exact
procedure used in the study
– Includes how the authors manipulated their IV, what DVs
they measured, and any randomization, balancing,
constancy, etc. issues
– Again, readers unfamiliar with the study should have enough
information to replicate the design if they wanted
The Methods Section
3
 Methods Section: Second major section of the APA-format paper
For your methods section, highlight both the independent and
dependent variables in the design. They should be easy to
spot. Be thorough as well. I should be able to replicate your
study design based solely on your methods description, so be
VERY specific and detailed.
The Results Section
The Results Section
1
 Results Section: Third major section of the APA-format paper
Will usually include descriptive statistics, including the mean
and standard deviations for relevant analyses
Will often include inferential statistics, like ANOVAs and tTests, with degrees of freedom, p values, and the like
Might report complimentary information
– Figures: A pictorial representation of a set of results
– Tables: A chart containing an array of descriptive statistics
The Results Section
2
 Results Section: Third major section of the APA-format paper
The results section tells your readers about the tests you ran.
They note the independent variable(s) in the analysis as well as
the dependent variable(s)
The good news about writing about statistics is that they use a
standardized writing style: “Group one (M = 2.34, SD = 2.11)
scored lower than group two (M = 5.67, SD = 1.14), t(23) =
5.43, p < .01).” The Results Section 3  Results Section: Third major section of the APA-format paper Pay a lot of attention to your lecture and lab materials, as they walk you through specifically when to run a specific statistical test, how to run it, how to interpret it, and how to write it up. The Discussion Section The Discussion Section 1  Discussion Section: Fourth major section – APA-format paper In the discussion section, the authors talk about their findings, but DO NOT use statistical language – They don’t simply regurgitate what they wrote in the results They summarize and restate the results, but rarely do they state the numbers again – They talk about the implications of their findings: What do the findings suggest about the nature of the topic? – They might compare their research to previous research – They can interpret their results with a bit more speculation The Discussion Section 2  Discussion Section: Fourth major section – APA-format paper For your papers, this where you can explore your findings in more depth. You can even speculate about why you saw the results you got (or why you didn’t see the results you expected)\ But the discussion still stems from the results section. You are interpreting information you found in that section. Don’t try to reach a conclusion that is not supported by the results. Don’t interpret variables that you did not actually analyze. The References Section References 1  The Reference Section: Rules 1). References start on their own page 2). Use a hanging indent for each reference (the first line of each reference is not indented, subsequent lines are) 3). References are in alphabetical order (listed by the last name of the first author listed on the paper). 4). Author last names and first and middle initials are included. 5). The references need to be double spaced throughout. Page number and running head continue onto the References page Bold & centered Hanging indent Listed in alphabetical order by last name of first author Notice all authors are listed in the reference (up to 20 authors). Whereas the in-text citation for this would simply be “Allen et al. (2013)” because there are more than 2 authors Note: The whole page is double spaced. No extra spaces between references. References – Periodical / Journals 1 Journal Article Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for an article by two or more authors. Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (date). Title of article. Title of the Periodical or Journal, vol, ppp-ppp. https://doi.org/... Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 2 The first line is NOT indented, but all others are. To do this in your word processor, simply highlight the citation and choose “hanging indent” in the paragraph formatting options. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 3 Note that only author last names and their initials are present. NO full first names. Just first and middle initial, separated by periods. If your name is: First Middle Last, it would be: Last, F. M. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 4 You will list all authors (up to 20 people) in the references, even if there are more than two. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 5 The in-text citation for this would be Wiener et al. (2004) OR (Weiner et al., 2004) because only the first author is listed for the citation if there are more than 2. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 6 Note that there is an “&” before the name of the last author Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 7 Each initial is followed by a period and a space. Some people have more than one middle name. List them all. For example, if the name is Julia Marie Humphrey Parker, you reference this as: Parker, J. M. H. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 8 And authors are separated by a comma (after the period) Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 9 The publication date is in parentheses, followed by a period. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 10 The title only has the first word capitalized. However, proper nouns (names of people or places) and words after punctuation (such as a : or !) are also capitalized Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 11 The journal name is italicized, with the first letter of major words capitalized Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 12 The volume comes next, and is also italicized (with commas on both sides) Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 13 Some journals also list an issue number. If an issue is printed in the article, then you include it in the citation. It goes after the volume in parentheses (not italicized). Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 14 Page numbers follow the volume Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 15 Finally, the DOI comes at the end. DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) are a way of “tagging” the article so that it can be retrieved from anywhere. The string of seemingly random numbers and letters are unique to that article. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 16 It must be written as a weblink with https://doi.org/ followed by the string of numbers and letters. You can simply copy and paste the string of numbers from the journal article. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., & Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000015003.72223.63 References – Periodical / Journals 17 Sometimes you can find the DOI at the top of the first page of the journal article (near the authors, title, and other journal information) References – Periodical / Journals Occasionally, you can find the DOI at the bottom of the first page of the publication. 1 References – Periodical / Journals And sometimes you can go into PsycInfo and scroll down the page to find the DOI hyperlink 2 References – More Article Examples Poser, S., Bornstein, B. H., & McGorty, K. E. (2003). Measuring damages for lost enjoyment of life: The view from the bench and the jury box. Law and Human Behavior. 27(1), 53-68. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021626928063 Berkowitz, L. & Lepage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggressioneliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7(2), 202-207. http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=https://wwwproquestcom.ezproxy.fiu.edu/docview/619347829?accountid=10901 This does not have a typical DOI, so the URL is ok References – Books 1 Book Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for a book by two or more authors. Books differ a bit from article. Can you spot the differences? Let’s find out … References – Books 2 Book Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for a book by two or more authors. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2002). Title of book. Publisher. Wrightsman, L. S., Greene, E., Nietzel, M. T., & Fortune, W. H. (2002). Psychology and the legal system (5th ed.). Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Greene, E. & Bornstein, B. (2003). Law and public policy. American Psychological Association. References – Books 3 Book Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for a book by two or more authors. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2002). Title of book. Publisher. The author format is still the same – last names and initials, with an “&” between the author names References – Books 4 Book Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for a book by two or more authors. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2002). Title of book. Publisher. The date is the same as in articles References – Books 5 Book Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for a book by two or more authors. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2002). Title of book. Publisher. The title of the book is italicized, though, and only the first word is capitalized (but capitalize proper nouns) References – Books 6 Book Example: The following is the most common type of APA reference for a book by two or more authors. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2002). Title of book. Publisher. Also notice that you do not need page numbers for this general book (though you may need them if you cite an edited book). I recommend looking at the APA manual for more details on page numbers in book citations. Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 7  Which of the following is correct APA format for a journal A). Bargh, John A., Chen, Mark, & Burrows, Lara (1996). Automaticity of Social Behavior: Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action. Journal of experimental and social psychology, 71, 230-244. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230 B). Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 71, 230-244. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230 Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 8  Which of the following is correct APA format for a journal A). Bargh, John A., Chen, Mark, & Burrows, Lara (1996). Automaticity of Social Behavior: Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action. Journal of experimental and social psychology, 71, 230-244. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230 B). Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 71, 230-244. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230 Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 9  Which of the following is the correct order for an APA paper? A). Title Page, Intro, Abstract, Methods, Discussion, References B). Title Page, Abstract, Intro, Methods, References, Discussion C). Title Page, Abstract, Intro, Methods, Discussion, References D). Abstract, Title Page, Intro, Methods, Discussion, References E). None of the above Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 10  Which of the following is the correct order for an APA paper? A). Title Page, Intro, Abstract, Methods, Discussion, References B). Title Page, Abstract, Intro, Methods, References, Discussion C). Title Page, Abstract, Intro, Methods, Discussion, References D). Abstract, Title Page, Intro, Methods, Discussion, References E). None of the above Part Three Writing in APA Style Writing in APA Style 1  General Guidelines: A few guidelines about APA style (this are in Chapter 14, and I recommend reading them closely there) 1. Orderly presentation of ideas: Maintain continuity 2. Smoothness of expression: You are writing a scientific paper, so there is no need to keep the reader in suspense! 3. Economy of expression: Avoid prolonged speeches and runon sentences 4. Precision and clarity: Do not use words carelessly. Write from an outline, and know where your paper is headed. Recall the hourglass format … The Hourglass Approach 1 General 1 2 3 4 5 6 Specific 7 8 9 10 11 12 General Title & Abstract 1. Identify problem & state importance 2. Review relevant research literature 3. Identify a gap or “research space” 4. State research aim – fill in the gap 5. Indicate choice of approach/method 6. Empirical & original part – your study 7. Results and Interpretation 8. Match results to research questions 9. Implications for specific knowledge 10. Broader implications for your field 11. Recommendations for the future 12. Conclusion & References Writing in APA Style 2  Grammatical Guidelines: Keep in mind the following as you write Avoid using a passive voice: Which is better … – “It was found by the authors …” is bad – “The authors found …” is much better The second sentence above uses an active voice, and thus the “actors” in the sentence are doing something (rather than having something done to them, as is the case in passive sentences) This is a tough skill to develop, so use the spell-check and grammar-check options on your computer for help Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 11  Which of the following uses an active voice? A). It was found that Group A did better than Group B B). Results showed that Group A did better than Group B Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 12  Which of the following uses an active voice? A). It was found that Group A did better than Group B B). Results showed that Group A did better than Group B Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 13  Which of the following uses an active voice? A). Participants completed informed consent forms B). Informed consent forms were completed by participants Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 14  Which of the following uses an active voice? A). Participants completed informed consent forms B). Informed consent forms were completed by participants Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 15  Can we ever prove a theory to be true? A). Yes, as long as your results supports your hypothesis B). Yes, but it takes many studies that have similar outcomes C). Yes, as long as your study maintains control over extraneous variables D). No, since you never know if some “yet to-be-done study” might come along and make you question the original theory Pop Quiz: Test Yourself! 16  Can we ever prove a theory to be true? A). Yes, as long as your results supports your hypothesis B). Yes, but it takes many studies that have similar outcomes C). Yes, as long as your study maintains control over extraneous variables D). No, since you never know if some “yet to-be-done study” might come along and make you question the original theory Part Four Plagiarism Plagiarism 1  Plagiarism is a big problem among students in research methods, so I want to spend some time showing you how to avoid it. That is why I have a whole section on this topic alone Plagiarism is considered cheating, and is derived from a Latin word that literally means “kidnapping”. – The general rules: Do your own writing – if you write poorly, there are writing centers on campus that can help you Give people the credit they deserve – cite any and all work that you are referencing, even if you do not use a direct quote. Plagiarism 2  Plagiarism Follow APA writing styles for this course (APA Publication Manual). There are several APA manuals in the library, though I would encourage anyone interested in continuing in psychology to buy their own copy. Do NOT use the internet to buy your papers. The university has access to a website called “turnitin.com” that can compare your paper to all of the papers already written before yours. It can spot plagiarism easily, and we use it to grade methods papers. All papers should be under 30% overlap with other sources (above 40% and your paper will receive an F) Plagiarism 3  How do you know when it is plagiarized? 1. Is copying from the internet if there is no author plagiarism? – YES. The APA publication manual has explicit guidelines for citing internet research, with and without known authors Plagiarism 4  How do you know when it is plagiarized? 2. What about paraphrasing? – A paraphrase takes the original work and expresses it in a new way, but you still need to credit the original author – Do not use a thesaurus to alter words in sentences and think this is paraphrasing. Altering one or two words is still plagiarism (and turnitin.com picks up on it!). – Do not paraphrase sentence by sentence. Paraphrase a whole paragraph after only reading it ONCE – Use direct quotes if you simply cannot paraphrase it better If directly quoting, don’t change a word of it! Plagiarism 5  How do you know when it is plagiarized? 3. Is organizing a paper around the similar themes as another paper plagiarism? – YES, and you still need to cite the original author. My hope, though, is that your papers will differ enough from published papers that you develop your own themes Plagiarism 6  How do you know when it is plagiarized? 4. If you use the same examples as another, is it plagiarism? – YES, so again cite the original source of the examples Plagiarism 7  How do you know when it is plagiarized? 5. Is taking a sentence from another source and using a thesaurus to change all the words still plagiarism? – YES! – And your paper won’t make any sense! – Let’s consider this as an example…  Original paragraph: Participants were randomly assigned to either a treatment group, which received 2 weeks of cognitive behavioral treatments, or a control group, which did not get treatment. All participants were recruited from a local public university in the southwestern United States.  Thesaurus paragraph: Members were arbitrarily allocated to either an action group, which received 2 weeks of mental interactive managements, or a regulator group, which did not get management. All contestants were drafted from an indigenous community campus in the southwestern United States. In addition to being plagiarism, this second paragraph doesn’t make any sense! So don’t just substitute words! Plagiarism 8  How can you avoid plagiarism? Say it in your OWN WORDS. – Pretend that you want to explain the concept or idea to your mom, brother, boyfriend, roommate after you read something. – You wouldn’t read the article to them verbatim. You would explain what they did. – Try to paraphrase whole ideas, not just one sentence at a time. Plagiarism 9  How can you avoid plagiarism? You do not need to cite “common knowledge” or your own “private opinions”, and some technical terms don’t need to be cited. Otherwise, the safe bet is “give credit” even if you use just a little bit of the original work (Talub, 2000, p. 7). Plagiarism 10  Emma The Scientist. In Methods One, you did a plagiarism pause- problem involving Emma. I encourage you to do the tutorial again, though you will not get credit for it for Methods Two Since you are scientists, use “Emma” as your avatar. This is an interactive website, so answer questions (in a red box) when you see them! This takes about 10 minutes to complete http://library.acadiau.ca/sites/default/files/library/tutorials/plagiarism/ (Emma – Copy and paste the link above)  You’ll need to do this outside of class Plagiarism 11  Here is another funny video, which I encourage you to watch though it is not required (copy and paste the link).  http://library.camden.rutgers.edu/EducationalModule/Plagiarism/ Part Five Your Methods Two Papers Your Methods Two Papers 1  Your Final Paper Since different Methods Two instructors might have different paper sequences, I want to discuss your final paper in the course, which is somewhat standardized across all sections Essentially, you will submit a full empirical manuscript as your final paper for the course. This will include ALL sections of a paper that authors submit to a journal when they wish to publish. We’ve already discussed these section, but as a reminder … Your Methods Two Papers 2  Your Final Paper will include ALL of the following sections (for at least one study, but quite likely two similar studies – One and Two) The title page The abstract The literature review The methods section The results section The discussion section The references The appendices Your Methods Two Papers 3  Since we just discussed all of these sections, I won’t go into detail about them yet again, but make sure to look over the first few sections in this presentation for some key pointers about each part of your final paper.  That being said, my best piece of advice is to look over an already published paper (like one you are using for your literature review). See how they set up their sections and mimic it! If they had their paper published, it means it has gone through the peer-review process and successfully employed APA formatting standards. Part Six An Eye Toward The Future An Eye Toward The Future  This is a review of APA formatting for those of you who might have forgotten it from Methods One (or those of you who might be more familiar with the 6th edition of the APA publication manual and who want to become familiar with the new 7th edition).  Our Methods Two course will grade based on APA formatting, so make sure you learn how to employ it in your papers.  Good luck on your future papers! Lab Presentation Week 1a Lab Introduction to the Lab Welcome to Your Research Lab 1  Welcome to your lab presentation! These lab presentations will give you a hands-on approach to setting up, running, collecting, and analyzing data (via SPSS) for your class research project. We will take a step-by-step approach in these lab slides and learn how to do research along the way!  A quick note: If you are taking methods live / hybrid on campus, your lab instructor MAY NOT go over these materials. But they are here for you anyway and useful! If you are an online student, pay close attention! Welcome to Your Research Lab 2  Let me repeat that for In-Person or Hybrid Methods II Students … Your lab instructor will go over a lot of this material when you get to your labs, but they may not go over the lab presentations in their entirety. I am including these lab slides for you in Canvas for you to look over on your own The lab presentations will walk you through your study design, including the predictions, the analysis, and SPSS My recommendation is to read these on your own before lab (and maybe even after) to help reinforce some of the concepts that you are learning about in the lab session. It makes a good lab content reminder, too (I know the lab sessions go quickly!) Welcome to Your Research Lab 3  For Fully Online Methods II Students … These lab presentations will walk you through your study design, including the predictions, the analysis, and SPSS My recommendation is to read very early in the week as they will help you with papers, assignments, and activities that may be due at the end of the week Test Your Understanding 1  Like the lecture powerpoint presentations (which include several “Pop Quiz” questions), I am going to sprinkle several “Test Your Understanding” slides within these lab presentations.  Unlike the “Pop Quiz” questions, these “Test Your Understanding” questions are purely practice for you. I’ll give you a multiple-choice question slide with question-and-answer options. On the very next slide, I’ll give you the correct answer. If you are incorrect, make sure to go back and review the information so you know why it was incorrect. If you are correct, great! Welcome to Your Research Lab 4  In this first lab presentation, we will look at the following … Part One: Your First Task In This Course Part Two: Your First Experimental Papers Part Three: An Eye Toward The Future Part One Your First Task In This Course Your First Task in This Course 1  In this course, you will carry out two studies. In the first study, you are going to see if participants alter their responses to a series of questions based on a manipulation that we will present to them I want you to be a part of that first study right now. It takes about 5 to 10 minutes. Are you ready to begin? – Let me first give you the study instructions (which are the same instructions that YOU will give to participants when YOU collect data for study one) Your First Task in This Course 2  “Hello, I am conducting a study for my research methods class. I was wondering if you would be willing to participate. The study takes about five to ten minutes. There are no risks to participating, and the main benefit is that I can complete my class assignment. Will you participate?” Yes No If yes, move on to the survey and look over the four sections … Your First Task in This Course 3  Instructions & WhatsApp Chat  Part A – Your Opinions  Part B – WhatsApp User Opinions  Part C – Demographics & Attention Check  Part D – Recall (Manipulation Check)  Let’s look over these parts, which are presented on the next few slides (though you can find a hard copy of the survey and researcher instruction mate...

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