Research Proposal OutlineTopic: Do traumatic childhood experiences lead to more aggressive behavior in interpersonal
and social relationships?
Purpose: I selected this topic because I believe that your early experiences impact how you
conduct yourself as an adult. Knowing that violent conduct is acquired indicates that it is not
innate. I’d want to do research on this issue to learn more about how violent behavior in adult
social relationships stems from childhood .
Research Articles:
Brannigan , K. R. (2020). The effects of childhood trauma on romantic support and adult
problem … Senior Honors Projects. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from
https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=honors202029
Overview: When it comes to reducing overall stress, establishing a stronger sense of purpose,
and promoting a decline in problematic behavior, supportive romantic relationships are often
quite significant in a person’s life. The results of this study illustrated the consequences of
experiencing childhood trauma. Traumatic experiences, meanwhile, frequently have social
repercussions as well. If, for instance, a person has gone through a lot of traumatic experiences in
their life, it could be especially challenging to find supportive and enduring love partnerships.
Giles, J. W., & Heyman, G. D. (2005). Young Children’s Beliefs about the Relationship between
Gender and Aggressive Behavior. Child Development, 76(1), 107–121.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696712
Overview: This study expresses young children’s views on the connection between gender and
aggressiveness in order to examine how gender is a major theme in early childhood. Children’s
perceptions of proper conduct for other children as well as their own behavior are heavily
influenced by gender knowledge.
Heikin, Roxanne E. (2019). “The Effects of Child Maltreatment on Social Relationships in
Emerging Adulthood” Honors Projects Overview. 157.
https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects/157
Overview: The purpose of this study was to investigate the connection between childhood abuse
and developing adult social interactions. By assessing findings in the quality of interpersonal and
social relationships in emerging adulthood, this study adds to the body of knowledge about the
impacts of child abuse. Preventative elements that are likely to lessen the damaging effects of
child abuse on social interactions.
The relevance of how one’s experiences shape how they behave in social situations is
highlighted in this study, which has value in the subject of social psychology. Humans
require social connection and outside assistance, thus this study expands the body of
knowledge in the field. A person’s behavior may change if they lack such kinds of
talents. Social contacts assist one have better mental health about sadness, anxiety,
aggression, etc. Social psychology research supports the idea that children pick up
relationship skills through seeing their parents interact, and that neglected or abused
children frequently grow up in hostile or unsupportive homes, which may have an
impact on how well they learn to form love relationships.
Build a Paper 3
My chosen social psychology topic: Aggression
Title of Paper: Do traumatic childhood experiences lead to more aggressive behavior in interpersonal
and social relationships?
Paper #1: The effects of childhood trauma on romantic support and adult problem
Brannigan , K. R. (2020). The effects of childhood trauma on romantic support and adult
problem … Senior Honors Projects. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from
https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=honors202029
1. What are the hypotheses made in this study?
a. There are 4 hypotheses for this study (3&4 are combined)
i.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) have been shown to increase the
likelihood that young adults may engage in hazardous conduct.
ii. Young adults who have had more Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) will
receive less encouragement in their love relationships.
iii. In contrast to kids who have less supportive romantic relationships, those who
have more Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) will exhibit less problematic
conduct when they enter their adolescence.
2. What is the sample of the study? How many participants? Who were the participants?
a. 58% of the participants were Caucasian, 29% were African Americans, and 13% were
“other” or mixed-race teenagers. There were 184 participants in total—86 men and 98
females—who represented a variety of ethnic and racial origins.
b. Participants reported at age 27 and included events from birth to age 18, were compared
to particular forms of support in interpersonal relationships, which participants reported
at ages 18, 21, and 24.
3. How was the study’s sample recruited and gathered?
a. 7th and 8th grade students at a public middle school in the Southeast of the United States
served as the first participants; 63% of those recruited (N = 298) consented to participate
and met the eligibility requirements. Until the teenagers reached the age of 18, when they
could give their own consent, they gave informed assent for their involvement, and their
parents gave informed consent for each wave of the study.
4. What statistical methods did the authors use to test their hypotheses?
a. Questionnaire – longtiutinal study
5. What were the findings of this paper, and was evidence found to support or reject the authors’
hypotheses?
a. The study’s hypotheses were supported by the associations between high levels of ACEs
and a higher risk of participating in problem conduct.
b. While most of the research supports the prediction that ACEs would predict a decline in
romantic support in young adulthood, the results of the current study did not support this
theory.
6. What did the authors conclude about their findings?
a. According to the findings of this study, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can have
long-term consequences that can be used to forecast relative increases in problem
behavior in later life..
7. What new information does this study provide about YOUR chosen paper topic?
a. Interestingly, the findings also imply that specific forms of romantic partner support may
act as a protective buffer against these adverse impacts and as a predictor of reduced
levels of participation in behavioral issues in adulthood.
8. Why is this paper valuable in the field of social psychology? How does it add to the literature
base in your chosen topic area?
a. The relevance of how one’s experiences shape how they behave in social situations is
highlighted in this study, which has value in the subject of social psychology. Humans
require social connection and outside assistance, thus this study expands the body of
knowledge in the field. A person’s behavior may change if they lack such kinds of talents.
Social contacts assist one have better mental health about sadness, anxiety, aggression,
etc.
Paper #2: The Effects of Child Maltreatment on Social Relationships in Emerging Adulthood
Heikin, Roxanne E. (2019). “The Effects of Child Maltreatment on Social Relationships in
Emerging Adulthood” Honors Projects Overview. 157.
https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects/157
1. What are the hypotheses made in this study?
a. As evaluated by conflict, contentment, and trust, it is hypothesized that people who
record more instances of child abuse would have worse relationship quality in their
friendships and romantic partnerships.
b. Also, it is hypothesized that different types of maltreatment would have varied
consequences on the emergence of relationships
2. What is the sample of the study? How many participants? Who were the participants?
a. Sample of 159 individuals between 18 and 25 years of age.
b. 76% of respondents said they were white (non-Hispanic), 10% said they were Black or
African American, and 17% said they were Hispanic. Sixty six percent of individuals said
they worked between one and 39 hours a day, with 13% saying they worked 40 or more.
3. How was the study’s sample recruited and gathered?
a. With the help of the participant pool, the majority of students (57% of participants) were
chosen from basic psychology classes. Nevertheless, leaflets distributed in public places
around the State of Rhode Island, such as libraries, universities, barbershops, coffee
shops, restaurants, hardware stores, and medical offices, were also used to find
volunteers. Also included in the recruitment process were those who dwell in a residential
facility run by the non-profit Family Service of Rhode Island (FSRI), which specializes in
serving high-risk young adults.
4. What statistical methods did the authors use to test their hypotheses?
a. Questionnaire
5. What were the findings of this paper, and was evidence found to support or reject the authors’
hypotheses?
a. Certain forms of abuse could be more closely related to certain facets of the quality of
romantic and platonic relationships.
b. The categorization of a person or characteristic to a category, such as child abuse, and
may result from measurement mistakes, is a limitation of the current study that might
restrict the findings owing to the retrospective design.
6. What did the authors conclude about their findings?
a. Emotional control helps safeguard developing adults by boosting resilience and insulating
them from the damaging effects of suffering abuse as a kid. It also fosters healthy
friendships and love connections.
7. What new information does this study provide about YOUR chosen paper topic?
a. The findings may also be used to guide therapies like counseling or therapy that aim to
enhance relationships by minimizing the negative effects of child abuse and promoting
healthy peer behavior and attitudes.
8. Why is this paper valuable in the field of social psychology? How does it add to the literature
base in your chosen topic area?
a. Social psychology research supports the idea that children pick up relationship skills
through seeing their parents interact, and that neglected or abused children frequently
grow up in hostile or unsupportive homes, which may have an impact on how well they
learn to form love relationships.
Summary questions:
1. Which of these two studies do you think was better designed? Why?
a. Due to the higher sample size and lower likelihood of generalization, Paper #1 was a
stronger research. Also, it was a longitudinal research, which helped lessen the bias
compared to paper #2, which was not.
2. What is the main difference between your chosen two papers?
a. Where the sampling was taken from
b. # of sampling size
c. Protective factors
d. Paper 1- association between crime
3. What is the main similarity between your chosen two papers?
a. Self- reporting questionnaires
b. Emotional regualtion
c. Importance of support- emotional, relationship, social
4. What remaining questions do you have about your chosen topic?
a. Is there a distinction between the types of childhood trauma?
b. Would an online survey give you different results? Sometimes when people are asked
personal questions face to face they may lie.
5. Based on these two papers, how would you design a study to answer your remaining questions
and further knowledge in your chosen topic area?
a. Consider drawing additional samples from those with lower incomes or racial origins
who may have less chances.
Rubric
Format
APA format
Times New Roman 12 size font , double spaced
5-7 pages of information (this does not include the title and reference page)
References
Paper #1
Brannigan , K. R. (2020). The effects of childhood trauma on romantic support and adult
problem … Senior Honors Projects.
https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=honors202029
Paper #2
Heikin, Roxanne E. (2019). “The Effects of Child Maltreatment on Social Relationships in
Emerging Adulthood” Honors Projects Overview.
https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects/157
***Addition References: (make sure you use the page numbers)
Giles, J. W., & Heyman, G. D. (2005). Young Children’s Beliefs about the Relationship between Gender
and Aggressive Behavior. Child Development, 76(1), 107–121. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3696712
Open Textbook Library. (2015). Principles of Social Psychology. Retrieved March 13, 2023, from
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/principles-of-social-psychology \
Introduction●
●
●
●
●
An introduction and brief definition of your chosen topic
Sentence on why your chosen topic is important within social psychology
Brief overview of past social psychology research that has been completed on your topic
Brief introduction of your chosen studies and a sentence about why you chose these papers
Conclusion sentence that introduces the next sections of your paper. This should be along the
lines of “In this paper, I will compare and contrast these two experimental studies and discuss
their implications for the study of [chosen topic.]”
Methods●
Paper #1:
● Introduction to the paper
● Discussion of how this paper relates your chosen topic
● Hypotheses made in the study
●
● Sample, participants
● Statistical methods
Paper #2:
● Introduction to the paper
● Discussion of how this paper relates your chosen topic
● Hypotheses made in the study
● Sample, participants
● Statistical methods
●
Results-
●
●
Paper #1:
● Results of the study
● Implications of the results
● Discussion of what the findings of this paper mean for your chosen topic
Paper #2:
● Results of the study
● Implications of the results
● Discussion of what the findings of this paper mean for your chosen topic
DiscussionPaper #1:
●
●
●
Discussion of the conclusions / implications the authors draw from their results
Connection of this study to your chosen paper topic
Discussion about why this paper is valuable in the field of social psychology and what it adds to
the literature base in your chosen topic area
Paper #2:
●
●
●
Discussion of the conclusions / implications the authors draw from their results
Connection of this study to your chosen paper topic
Discussion about why this paper is valuable in the field of social psychology and what it adds to
the literature base in your chosen topic area
Conclusion
●
●
●
Discussion about the main differences and similarities between your two chosen papers
Discussion about future directions – where should researchers in your chosen topic area go next?
What should they study, and how?
General conclusions about your chosen topic area based on what you learned from your two
chosen papers
Throughout the paper:
●
Talk about the 2 additional references with the (**) in addition to your 2 chosen papers. These
would probably be best to use in the Introduction and Discussion sections, to help contextualize
these studies within the larger literature of your topic area
James Madison University
JMU Scholarly Commons
Senior Honors Projects, 2020-current
Honors College
5-8-2020
The effects of childhood trauma on romantic support and adult
problem behavior
Keiva R. Brannigan
Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/honors202029
Part of the Clinical Psychology Commons, Experimental Analysis of Behavior Commons, and the
Social Psychology Commons
Recommended Citation
Brannigan, Keiva R., “The effects of childhood trauma on romantic support and adult problem behavior”
(2020). Senior Honors Projects, 2020-current. 18.
https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/honors202029/18
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors College at JMU Scholarly Commons. It has
been accepted for inclusion in Senior Honors Projects, 2020-current by an authorized administrator of JMU
Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact dc_admin@jmu.edu.
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Table of Contents
I.
List of Figures
Page 3
II.
Acknowledgements
Page 5
III.
Abstract
Page 6
IV.
Introduction
Page 7
V.
Method
Page 15
VI.
Results
Page 20
VII.
Discussion
Page 23
VIII.
References
Page 31
IX.
Tables
Page 40
X.
Figures
Page 51
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
List of Figures
Tables
1. Regressions: ACEs, instrumental support, peer-reported intrusive behavior
40
2. Regressions: ACEs, instrumental support, peer-reported rule-breaking behavior
41
3. Regressions: ACEs, instrumental support, self-reported aggressive behavior
42
4. Regressions: ACEs, instrumental support, self-reported rule-breaking behaviors
43
5. Regressions: ACEs, emotional support, self-reported rule-breaking behaviors
44
6. Regressions: ACEs, emotional support, self-reported crimes against persons
45
7. Regressions: ACEs, emotional support, self-reported aggressive behaviors
46
8. Regressions: ACEs, perceived support, peer-reported rule-breaking behavior
47
9. Regressions: ACEs, perceived support, self-reported crimes against persons
48
10. Regressions: ACEs, perceived support, self-reported crimes not against persons
49
11. Descriptive statistics and correlations
50
Figures
1. Interaction: ACEs, instrumental support, peer-reported intrusive behavior
51
2. Interaction: ACEs, instrumental support, peer-reported rule-breaking behavior
52
3. Interaction: ACEs, instrumental support, self-reported aggressive behavior
53
4. Interaction: ACEs, instrumental support, self-reported rule-breaking behaviors
54
5. Interaction: ACEs, emotional support, self-reported rule-breaking behaviors
55
6. Interaction: ACEs, emotional support, self-reported crimes against persons
56
7. Interaction: ACEs, emotional support, self-reported aggressive behaviors
57
8. Interaction: ACEs, perceived support, peer-reported rule-breaking behavior
58
9. Interaction: ACEs, perceived support, self-reported crimes against persons
59
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
10. Interaction: ACEs, perceived support, self-reported crimes not against persons
4
60
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Acknowledgements
This project would not have been possible without the help and guidance of my thesis
advisor, Dr. David Szwedo. Dr. Szwedo agreed to work with me on this project two years ago,
and since then he has provided me with endless instruction, support, and expertise. I would also
like to thank Dr. Jeff Dyche and Dr. Monica Reis-Bergen for serving on my thesis committee
and providing me with helpful feedback and encouragement. I could not have done this without
all three of you, and I am extremely grateful for everything you’ve done for me.
5
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Abstract
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are a common topic in research investigating
outcomes of abused or traumatized children. Previous literature on ACEs have established that
high levels of ACEs are associated with both higher levels of problem behaviors in adulthood
and lower quality of support in romantic relationships in adolescence/early adulthood. However,
the potential for high levels of romantic support and other healthy relationship qualities to act as
a buffer against the negative effects of ACEs on later problem behaviors has yet to be addressed
in the literature. Thus, the present study utilizes data from an ongoing longitudinal study on
social relationships and related variables to examine the moderating effect of perceived support
and observed instrumental and emotional support on later engagement in problem behaviors. The
results provided evidence for support to act as a buffer as was hypothesized, but they also
demonstrated potential to increase further engagement in problem behaviors.
Keywords: adverse childhood experience, romantic support, romantic relationships,
aggression, problem behavior, criminal behavior
6
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
The Effects of Childhood Trauma on
Romantic Support and Adult Problem Behavior
Adverse events occurring during childhood have the potential to result in negative
emotional and psychological consequences that may continue to pose challenges to victims for
the rest of their lives (Anda et al., 2005). Many adverse outcomes are associated with the
experience of childhood trauma, such as mental illness, physical illness, substance abuse,
prolonged stress, and fear (Dube, 2017). However, there are also often interpersonal
consequences of traumatic experiences. For example, establishing supportive and long-lasting
romantic relationships may be particularly difficult when one has experienced a high number of
adverse life events (Brickel, 2015; Wolfe et al., 2001). Indeed, higher rates of reported adverse
childhood experiences are correlated with higher rates of divorce and violence in relationships
(Wolfe et al., 2001).
However, supportive romantic relationships are usually very important in an individual’s
life, helping to decrease overall stress, establish a greater sense of purpose, and encourage a
decrease in problematic behaviors (Muller, Skurtveit, & Clausen, 2016; Tharp et al., 2013).
Failing to form supportive romantic relationships, on the other hand, can be detrimental to
physical and mental health, and can potentially also contribute to the adoption of harmful,
criminal, and delinquent behaviors in adulthood (Arene, 2016; Brickel, 2016; Muller, Skurtveit,
& Clausen, 2016). Despite the known consequences of adverse life events and benefits of
supportive relationships, research has yet to consider how adverse childhood experiences may
impact the quality of romantic relationships developed in early adulthood, and moreover, how
these factors may interact to predict different types of young adult problem behavior.
Childhood Trauma and Adult Behavior
7
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Traumatic events such as sexual assaults, physical abuse, and parental neglect tend to
elicit significant emotional pain and overwhelm an individual’s ability to cope adaptively with
stress (Santiago et al., 2013). When such events occur in childhood, they may be even more
problematic than when they occur in adulthood (Shira, Shmotkin, & Litwin, 2012). For example,
adverse childhood experiences have been directly linked to harmful behaviors in adolescence
such as unprotected sex, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse, as well as with more serious negative
behaviors such as higher levels of criminality and delinquency (Nall, 2015). Shira and
colleagues (2012) also found that individuals whose adversities occurred earlier in their lives as
compared to later were more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness later in life, suggesting
that such adversity occurring at younger ages may disrupt critical processes for healthy
development. More specifically, Widom (1989) compared criminal records of individuals who
reported childhood abuse and neglect versus criminal records of those who did not report
childhood abuse and neglect. She found that those who were abused and neglected as children,
compared to those who were not, had worse criminal records as adults as reflected by more
arrests and more violent offenses (Widom, 1989). Such findings highlight the potential for
traumatic events occurring before adulthood to have significant, long-lasting, detrimental
associations with problematic adult outcomes.
Currie and Tekin (2006) suggest that one possible reason for the connection between
childhood trauma and crime is the totality of circumstances that such youth endure. For example,
children who have higher levels of adverse experiences are more likely to reside in locations
where crime rates are high and substance abuse is prevalent. They are more likely to be
surrounded by individuals who, themselves, are involved in criminal behavior. Growing up in
this environment may lead children to develop similar lifestyles, having learned that such
8
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
behavior is normal. More specific mechanisms have also been considered. For example, children
who experience maltreatment start engaging in crime earlier due to their deficits in emotional
regulation, high levels of impulsivity, and difficulty feeling empathy (Rogosch, Chicchetti, &
Aber, 1995; Widom, 1989). They are also more likely to develop unhealthy coping mechanisms,
such as self-destructive behaviors and denial (Min et al., 2007; Walsh, Fortier, & DiLillo, 2010;
Whiffen & MacIntosh, 2005). Although some proportion of these attributes are certainly passed
on genetically (Busjahn et al., 1999; Hur et al., 2012), there is also a likely environmental
component to their development. Youth who have many adverse experiences may develop poor
models of interpersonal support and reliance given inadequate social and emotional care
experienced growing up (Hur et al., 2012; Reyes, 2016; Reyome, 2010). Indeed, such youth tend
to cope with stress by distancing themselves from their support systems, which makes it more
difficult for their loved ones to identify their pain and need for support, and possibly lead to the
perception that their social support is inadequate (DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; Holtzman,
Newth, & DeLongis, 2004). Notably, a lack of support from family and friends among youth
with adverse childhood experiences has been associated with higher levels of youths’ aggressive
and criminal behaviors, suggesting the potential importance of considering social support for
predicting such outcomes (Colvin, Cullen, & Vander Ven, 2002; Garcia & Lane, 2012; Laser &
Leibowitz, 2009).
Childhood Trauma and Support in Future Romantic Relationships
As previously suggested, there is strong evidence that youth who experience negative
events during childhood tend to have more interpersonal problems in adolescence and adulthood
(Godbout, Sabourin, & Lussier, 2009; Howes & Espinosa, 1985; Labella et al., 2019; Rogosch,
Cicchetti, & Aber, 1995; Salzinger et al., 1993). Childhood trauma is believed to inhibit the
9
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
formation of supportive relationships because they may limit children’s development of healthy
coping mechanisms and communication skills (Labella et al., 2019; Min et al., 2007; Whiffen &
MacIntosh, 2005). For example, children who are abused or who grow up in abusive
environments often have few examples of healthy relationships, making it more difficult for
them to learn relationship skills necessary to establish supportive relationships (Godbout,
Sabourin, & Lussier, 2009; Howes & Espinosa, 1985; Labella et al., 2019; Reyes, 2016;
Reyome, 2010; Salzinger et al., 1993; Wolfe et al., 2001). Reyes (2016) suggests that children
who experience more negative early life events frequently also have poor or insecure
attachments with, and a lack of support from, their caregivers. Moreover, such insecure
attachments with caregivers tends to predict their own unsupportive romantic relationships later
in life. These children have fewer opportunities to experience stable, close, and supportive
relationships, and therefore have fewer opportunities to develop the skills needed to establish and
maintain one. Moreover, the maladaptive schemas that abused children develop, such as mistrust
and emotional inhibition, may also contribute to these children ending up in less supportive
relationships (Reyome, 2010).
Labella and colleagues (2019) also discussed the role that childhood trauma specifically
plays in the development of romantic competence and relational violence in young adulthood.
They found that higher levels of reported childhood abuse/neglect exposure were significantly
associated with inhibited levels of romantic competence (Labella et al., 2019). They also
discovered that higher levels of childhood abuse predicted higher levels of relational violence in
young adulthood, consistent with the findings of other related studies (Webster, 2016; Wolfe et
al., 2001). On the other hand, there is also evidence that individuals who endured a high number
of adverse experiences during childhood may cope with this stress instead by distancing
10
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
themselves from their support systems, which likely includes their romantic partner, making it
difficult to build a supportive relationship (DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005).
Romantic Relationships and Problem Behavior
Poor interpersonal and romantic relationships are highly correlated with later engagement
in problem behaviors (Garcia & Lane, 2012; Wyse, Harding, & Morenoff, 2014). For example,
Garcia and Lane (2012) explored the role that poor relationships with friends, romantic partners,
and family play in the lives of girls in the juvenile detention system. Using a focus group of 27
delinquent girls, these researchers determined that nearly every girl attributed their behavior to
relationship strain defined by a lack of valued positive interactions and an excess of negative or
painful interactions. The girls reported that that their inability to specifically cope with these
relationship strains were likely explanations for their behaviors (Garcia & Lane, 2012).
Additional research has provided further evidence that a lack of support in youth relationships is
associated with problem behaviors such as delinquency, depression, substance abuse, and sexual
acting out in both girls and boys (Colvin, Cullen, & Vander Ven, 2002; Garcia & Lane, 2012;
Laser & Leibowitz, 2009). Overall, relationships that lack support may put a child or adolescent
at a greater risk for engaging in later problem behavior (Colvin, Cullen, & Vander Ven, 2002;
Wyse, Harding, & Morenoff, 2014).
Supportive romantic relationships, on the other hand, can provide significant mental,
emotional, and physical benefits for the people in them (Braithwaite, Delevi, & Fincham, 2010;
Brickel, 2016; Whitton et al., 2012). In a study of college students, those who were in committed
romantic relationships had fewer mental health and physical issues (Braithwaite et al., 2010);
furthermore, college students in healthy, supportive, romantic relationships were found to have
fewer problems with alcohol abuse (Whitton et al., 2012). Married couples seem to report even
11
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
more mental and physical health benefits from their relationships (Blanchflower & Oswald,
2004; Gove, Hughes, & Briggs, 1983; Horwitz, White, & Howell-White, 1996; Simon &
Marcussen, 1999).
In addition to providing health benefits, marriage has been associated with general
decreases in recidivism and criminal behavior in ex-offenders; these effects are more pronounced
for men than for women (Beaver et al., 2008; Burt et al., 2010; Kerr et al., 2011; King,
Massoglia, & MacMillan, 2007; Sampson, Laub, & Wimer, 2006; Shouse, 2017). Additionally,
individuals who are married also tend to display lower levels of criminal and antisocial behavior
than do those who are unmarried (Burt et al., 2010; King, Massoglia, & MacMillan, 2007).
Furthermore, in the years leading up to marriage, men reported lower levels of criminal and
antisocial behavior, suggesting that the relationships themselves assisted in decreasing deviant
behaviors, and this decrease simply became more pronounced once the man committed to
marriage (Burt et al., 2010). This finding speaks to the importance of developing romantic
relationships and how these relationships can have significant benefits in decreasing problematic
behaviors.
Romantic Support
As discussed throughout thus far, one of the most important qualities associated with a
romantic relationship that may impact associations between early adverse experiences and future
problem behavior is romantic support (Boyes, 2013; Madson & Collins, 2011). Support, in
general, has been correlated with higher levels of individual happiness and overall well-being,
lower levels of stress and anxiety, lower levels of loneliness, and a greater sense of belonging
(Hagerty & Williams, 1999; Morelli et al., 2015). Romantic partners are often sources of
instrumental support, which refers to advice-giving, problem solving, and informational support,
12
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
and emotional support, such as caring, listening, and boosting self-esteem (Morelli et al., 2015;
Semmer et al., 2008; Shakespeare-Finch & Obst, 2011). The literature suggests that emotional
support is the most important aspect of social support in terms of romantic relationships because
it satisfies the need to belong and to be cared for (Sarason et al., 1996; Semmer et al., 2008). For
example, Semmer et al (2008) demonstrated that even when supportive actions by a partner
appear to be instrumental (by an observer/researcher), the receiver frequently interprets them as
having an emotional meaning. Instrumental support, on the other hand, appears to be more
effective when received from non-romantic others, likely due to the fact that the receiver of the
support does not interpret the support as having an underlying emotional connotation (Dakof &
Taylor, 1990; Semmer et al., 2008; Wortman & Dunkel-Schetter, 1979). This research draws
attention to the fact that individuals sometimes perceive support differently than it might be
intended or observed by others, and the way in which an individual perceives social support from
others has an impact on their overall well-being and the quality of their relationships (Lakey &
Cassady, 1990; Semmer et al., 2008).
Thus, although social support in romantic relationships is often associated with positive
benefits for the individual, it may perhaps be best considered as a nuanced construct, the effect of
which potentially determined by the type of support given and one’s perception of it. There is
also evidence that indicates that supportive partners in some contexts may even facilitate
problem behavior. For example, individuals with a history of criminal behavior who enter into
relationships with people who are more tolerant or supportive of this behavior tend to recidivate
more frequently than do individuals who enter relationships with partners who are less tolerant or
supportive of this behavior (Anderson, Anderson, & Skov, 2015; Shouse, 2017). That is,
individuals who are more predisposed to criminal behavior might actually see an increase in
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
these behaviors if they enter a relationship with someone who is supportive and/or tolerant of
their actions. Furthermore, theories of self-selection indicate that people are more likely to date
individuals to whom they are similar, suggesting that people who are more likely to engage in
problem behaviors are likely to date people who support and share the same predisposition
(Rhule-Louie & McMahon, 2007). These studies suggest that while many supportive
relationships may contribute to a decrease in criminal and problem behaviors, there may be
conditions under which support exacerbates problem behavior. For example, a supportive
relationship with an equally problematic partner might increase problem behaviors rather than
decrease them (Anderson, Anderson, & Skov, 2015; Rhule-Louie & McMahon, 2007; Shouse,
2017).
Hypotheses of the Present Study
Childhood trauma can have detrimental, long-lasting impacts on individuals’ behavior
and relationships. A substantial amount of research has demonstrated the association between
childhood trauma and problem behaviors, but minimal research has been conducted to examine
the potential for supportive romantic relationships to serve as a buffering factor between
childhood trauma and problem behaviors. While support is generally considered to have a
positive impact on relationships, different kinds of support (i.e. perceived versus observed,
instrumental versus emotional) might differentially impact the outcome of the interaction. It is
thus hypothesized that:
1. Youth with a greater number of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) will have higher
levels of problematic behavior in young adulthood.
2. Youth with a greater number of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) will have lower
levels of support in their romantic relationships in young adulthood.
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
3. Youth with a greater number of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) who experience
greater support in their young adult romantic relationships will have relative decreases in
levels of problematic behavior in young adulthood compared to youth with less
supportive romantic relationships.
4. All three types of romantic support (i.e. observed instrumental, observed emotional, selfperceived) will be associated with relative decreases in problematic behavior in young
adulthood, with more frequent and robust effects hypothesized for emotional and
perceived support.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Data for this study was drawn from a larger longitudinal study of adolescents and their
relationships with family, peers, and romantic partners. The participants consisted of 184
adolescents (86 males, 98 females) and were of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds (58%
Caucasian, 29% African American, 13% “other” or mixed-race). The sample obtained for this
study was representative of the general population from which it was drawn in regards to racial
makeup (42% non-white in the sample compared to 40% non-white in schools) and
socioeconomic status ($43,618 in the sample compared to $48,000 in the general population).
In addition to the adolescent participants, a selected close friend and a selected romantic
partner were also invited, upon providing informed consent, to participate in the study. Data for
the current study were thus obtained from the adolescents as well as from a close friend and a
romantic partner, and were obtained over multiple waves of the study. Data concerning romantic
partners were assessed at mean ages 18, 21, 24. If adolescents did not report having a romantic
relationship of at least two months duration at age 18, but had relationships of at least two
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
months at ages 21 or 24, the earliest age romantic data were available was used in analyses.
When participants reported a relationship at multiple time points, the earlier age was used in
analyses; relationships at earlier ages were prioritized in analyses because it was theorized that
these relationships might hold more developmental significance, due to findings from Haynie et
al. (2005) and Joyner & Campa (2006), both of which emphasized the importance of early
adolescent romantic relationships in later functioning and future relationships. The current study
uses data obtained from the adolescent’s close friend at ages 18 and 25, and from the adolescent
at ages 18, 25, and 27.
Participants were initially recruited from a public middle school in the Southeastern
region of the United States, consisting of 7th and 8th graders; 63% of those initially recruited (N
= 298) agreed to participate and were eligible. Adolescents provided informed assent for their
participation, and their parents provided informed consent for each wave of the study until the
adolescents reached the age of 18, at which time they could provide their own consent.
Interviews took place in a private office within university academic buildings. All participants,
including the adolescents, peers, and romantic partners, were financially compensated for their
participation. A Confidentiality Certificate issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services provided protection of the data, meaning the information obtained from the study could
not be subpoenaed by federal, state, or local courts. Transportation and childcare were provided
to participants when necessary.
Measures
Adverse Childhood Experiences
At age 27, participants completed a 10-item Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
questionnaire in which they reported adverse childhood experiences that they encountered during
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
the first 18 years of their lives by answering “yes” or “no” to each item. This measure assessed
experiences including exposure to verbal threats and abuse, exposure to physical threats and
abuse, exposure to sexual abuse, feelings of physical and/or emotional neglect, exposure to
parental or familial alcohol and/or substance abuse, parental divorce, exposure to spousal abuse
between parents, living with someone with mental health difficulties, and living with someone
who was sent to prison (Anda & Felitti, n.d.). To code the items, each “yes” response was given
a 1, and each “no” response was given a 0. Higher scores indicated greater exposure to adverse
childhood experiences. This measure was correlated with a greater risk for negative
consequences later in life (Anda & Felitti, n.d.). In the present study, the average number of
ACEs per participant was 1.43 with a standard deviation of 1.86. The range was 8.1, with the low
being 0 and the high being 8.1. Internal consistency for this measure was good (alpha = .75).
Support in Romantic Relationships
At mean ages 18, 21, and 24, if participants were in a relationship of at least two months’
duration, they and their romantic partners completed different measures and tasks to assess
romantic support. Data from the earliest age romantic relationships were available were used in
the present study. To assess self-perceived support within the relationship, participants
completed the Network of Relationships Inventory (NRI), 45-item a questionnaire that assessed
several constructs in order to analyze the quality of the relationship. Support was assessed using
three items from the questionnaire: “How often do you turn to this person for support with
personal problems,” “How often do you depend on this person for help, advice, or sympathy,”
and “When you are feeling down or upset, how often do you depend on this person to cheer
things up?” Constructs were scored on a 5-point Likert scale: 1) little or none, 2) somewhat, 3)
very much, 4) extremely much, or 5) the most. (Furman, 1998; Furman & Buhrmester, 1985).
17
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Internal consistency across the three time points assessed was excellent (alphas = .89, .89, and
.88, respectively.)
To assess instrumental and emotional support received from their romantic partner,
participants completed the Supportive Behavior Task (SBT) with their romantic partners. This
task included a six-minute interaction during which the participant was to address a “problem
they were having that they could use some advice or support about.” The discussion was coded
based on different types of support provided to the participant by his/her romantic partner. The
coders rated the interactions based on two types of support: instrumental support and emotional
support. The types of support assessed in the current study were Instrumental Support Given and
Emotional Support Given. When evaluating instrumental support, the coders assessed the
supporter’s ability to recognize that a problem exists and that a solution is needed, to offer plans
on how to solve the problem, to keep the conversation directed towards solving the problem, and
to commit to helping to find a solution to the problem. Supporters were given a score 0-4, 0
representing no instrumental support or any planning of how to solve the problem at all, 4
representing the highest level of instrumental support, characterized by the criteria above.
Emotional support was coded based on the supporter’s ability to validate the seeker (the person
seeking support) by making statements that demonstrated understanding, to sympathize with the
seeker, to be able to identify the emotion the seeker was feeling, to listen to and recognize the
feelings of the seeker and that a problem exists, to attempt to elicit emotional disclosure from the
seeker, to understand and recognize the seeker’s feelings, and to make a commitment to support
the seeker and to be emotionally available to them. Supporters were scored 0-4, 0 representing
no attempt to socially support the seeker; this might include ignoring the seeker, belittling their
feelings, or only offering instrumental advice. A score of 4 represented the highest level of
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TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
emotional support, characterized by the supporter recognizing and attempting to mend the
seeker’s distress and expressing sympathy and caring toward the seeker throughout the majority
of the session (Allen et al., 2012). Interrater reliability for instrumental support and emotional
support, respectively, were good to excellent across all three time points (age 18 = .91, .80; age
21 = .75, .66; age 24 = .80, .75).
Adult Problem Behaviors
When the participant was 18 and 25, his/her close friend completed the Adult Behavior
Checklist (ABCL) in reference to the behaviors they observed in the participant. For the purpose
of the present study, the variables from the ABCL will be referred to as “minor problem
behaviors” because they are less specifically violent and/or illegal than the other, more severe
problem behaviors. Behaviors included measures of externalizing behaviors, such as aggressive
behavior (alphas = .84; .87), rule-breaking behavior (alphas = .79; .79), and intrusive behavior
(alphas = .77; .76). For each scale, a higher score indicated more problems (Achenbach &
Rescorla, 2003).
At ages 18 and 25, participants completed two self-report questionnaires that sought
insight into their problem behaviors. The first questionnaire they completed was the Adult SelfReport (ASR) and measured the same constructs that were measured by the close friend in the
ABCL: aggressive behavior (alphas = .84; .84), rule-breaking behavior (alphas = .79; .84), and
intrusive behavior (alphas = .69; .67). For each scale, a higher score indicated more problems.
Cross-informant reliability between the ABCL (close friend-report) and the ASR (self-report)
ranged from r = .30 to r = .79 (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2003).
The second self-report questionnaire that participants completed at ages 18 and 25 was
the Problem Behavior Inventory (PBI). For the purposes of this study, the variables measured
19
TRAUMA, RELATIONSHIPS, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
with this questionnaire will be considered “severe problem behaviors” because they are more
specifically violent and/or illegal than the other, less severe problem behaviors. This measure
contains six subscales, two of which were used in the present study: 1) Crimes Against Persons
(alphas = .44; .61), and 2) Crimes Not Against Persons (alphas = .49; .51). Each subscale was
scored on an 8-point Likert scale: 1) never, 2) once or twice, 3) three or four times, 4) once a
month, 5) two or three times a month, 6) once a week, 7) two to three times a week, 8) once a
day. Higher scores higher indicated levels of criminal behaviors (Elliot & Ageton, 1980).
All problem behavior constructs were measured at age 18 to gauge and control for any
preexisting problem behaviors, and again at age 25 to measure potential impacts of romantic
support.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Univariate Statistics and Correlational Analyses. Means and standard deviations are
presented in Table 11. Table 11 also presents correlations between primary variables. Initial
analyses examined the role of gender and income on all primary variables. For demographic
variables, gender was significantly correlated with total delinquency (r=-0.15; p
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