Case 13-01c: Refer-a-Friend ProgramPage 1
Case 13-01
Refer-a-Friend Program
Runway Discount (“Runway” or the “Company”) is a privately held online retailer that
sells discounted high-end fashions. In an effort to increase its sales and customer base,
Runway implemented a customer referral marketing campaign (the “Refer-a-Friend
Program”) whereby existing customers can refer friends to Runway and receive a $25
credit toward the purchase of future merchandise. The terms of the program are as
follows:
Runway offers existing customers (the “Existing Customer”) a $25 credit (the
“$25 Referral Credit”) if the Existing Customer refers a friend (the “New
Customer”) to Runway’s Web site and the New Customer purchases merchandise
from Runway.
After a purchase is made by the New Customer, the Existing Customer receives a
$25 credit to be applied to a future purchase from Runway.
The $25 Referral Credit represents the fair value of the cost Runway would pay to
acquire a new customer from an unrelated third party or marketing firm who is not a
purchaser of its products. The program is open to all of Runway’s customers and does not
need to be combined with any initial or existing purchases.
Required:
1. How should the $25 Referral Credit be recorded in Runway’s income
statement?
2. When would Runway record the $25 Referral Credit? What are the journal
entries Runway would record when the $25 Referral Credit is earned by
the Existing Customer? What are the journal entries Runway would record
when the $25 Referral Credit is redeemed against a $100 purchase made
by the Existing Customer?
3. Runway is planning to adopt IFRSs in the near future. What is the relevant
accounting guidance it would follow under IFRSs?
Copyright 2012 Deloitte Development LLC
All Rights Reserved.
APA Style 1
Running head: APA STYLE: AN EXAMPLE OUTLINE OF A CASE STUDY
APA Style: An Example Outline of a Case Study
Your Name
American Public University System
(TITLE: Must be specific and concise [20 word limit]. Must include variables. Must
include mention of population. Do not use jargon. )
APA Style 2
Abstract
(This is your section header centered on the page)
Type your abstract here within APA abstract limits (100-250 words)
For a proposal, here, you will state the purpose of your study, the population you are
studied, the sample you used, and your method: qualitative or quantitative, instrument
(interview, survey, questionnaire, etc.)
For a complete paper you would add your summarized findings.
APA Style 3
Your title
(Your title is your section header centered on the page)
You will need to bring all your written communication skills to this project. You will be very
careful with proper citation. You will not use direct quotes. The whole of this paper is to be in
your words. Ideas and information used from other authors are to be cited.
Introduction (2-3 pages)
First address the problem! State the overall area of concern (populations-at-risk for
injustice or discrimination; need for more functional affiliations for individuals and groups;
unethical policies/practices; lack of knowledge in the field, etc.). Arouse the reader’s interest; tell
the reader what to expect in the rest of your paper. Provide brief statistics to indicate the
incidence of the problem.
Next, answer the questions, “ How does this problem effect accounting practice and/or
standards?”(Ethical research requires us to focus our efforts where need is the greatest).
The potential utility of your study can be: 1) an addition to current knowledge of a
problem or a vulnerable population; 2) to put social work theory to an empirical test; 3) to better
understand the relationship between variables (like homelessness and housing shortage); or 4) to
determine the effectiveness of a treatment method or program.
Discuss how this problem area affects individuals, communities, and society as a whole
(what are issues of social and economic justice).
Variables
Conceptually define your major variables in a clear and concise manner, e.g. “Gross
Domestic Product” or “FASB 133”.
Summary
Summarize this chapter in approximately two to three paragraphs.
(Add any additional points or sub-points that relate to your study)
Review of the Literature (5-7 pages)
(This is your section header centered on the page)
Type your literature review here, double spaced, and cite in APA style throughout
Brief history
It is helpful to your readers to understand the context of your problem and the solutions
that have been attempted to date. Is this a recent problem? An on-going one? What
brought it to the attention of the public?
Review
You need to summarize what existing literature has to say about your problem and the
APA Style 4
existing solutions: What has been tried, what has worked, what has not worked, why.
As you begin, you need to share your theory base with the readers so they understand
how what you are presenting is influenced by that theory base. As you read articles on your topic
look for what other authors have to say about a theoretical framework for understand the
problem and pointing a direction for solutions.
This section should flow from past to present. What where the earliest interventions or
solutions? What are the most recent? Be sure to present all sides whether or not they agree with
your hypothesis. Your research will typically involve some gap in information (why research
what we already know?).
After you present what is already known, make your case for your research either
answering a new question, getting a new answer to an old question, answering a question about a
new population, etc. After you have made your case that your research is going to give new
information, you will summarize the major points. Finally, you will formulate (in the last
sentence) your research question or your hypothesis.
Remember that the Introduction discusses the problem. The review of literature should
concentrate on solutions (those that exist, those that are still required). Please use a minimum
of seven (7) and a maximum of ten (10) references. References should NOT be older than five
years.
Case Study (5-7 Pages)
(This is your section header centered on the page)
Case studies are reports of case materials obtained while working with an individual, a
group, a community, or an organization. Case studies illustrate a problem; indicate a means for
solving a problem; and shed light on needed research, empirical applications, or theoretical
matters. In writing case studies, authors carefully consider the balance between providing
important illustrative material and using confidential case material responsibly.
Alternative Solutions
Offer alternative solutions and approaches to the problem. Using information or data
found in the case study, as well as from course materials and your own research, offer two or
more solutions or approaches to the problem.
Evaluation of Alternatives
Critically assess the alternatives defined in the “Alternative Solutions” section. Describe the
implications and key steps for implementation of each alternative. Consider external and internal
factors and other relevant trends. Once again, utilize course texts and other resources to enhance
your assessment.
Recommendations
APA Style 5
Based on your analysis in the “Evaluation of Alternatives” section, recommend one alternative.
Support and justify your recommendation. Depending on the nature of the case, you may suggest
management or leadership styles or commitments, describe the organizational structure, policies
and systems, or outline changes to the business model needed to successfully implement this
recommendation.
Conclusion
Summarize the likely result and/or obstacles that may play into the execution of your solution.
What outcomes might result from the implementation of the selected alternative? What internal
or external trends may enhance or obstruct successful implementation?
APA Style 6
References
(This is your section header centered on the page) (1-2 pages)
Type your reference list here in proper APA formatting
*** Read this note: you will be held responsible for its content. For your paper you are
required to use a minimum of 10 journal articles, 1 text, and 2 approved websites (All
reference material must be from “peer” reviewed scholarly journals, edited books, official
government documents, or reliable agency and organizational reports and documents
approved by the instructor. Newspapers, internet sites such as Wikipedia, and non “peer”
reviewed reference material will not be accepted for assignments.)
APA Style 7
Appendix
(This is your section header centered on the page)
Include a copy of your survey/questions/instrument, IRB approval, and Agency approval
letter in the Appendix section
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APA
CHAPTER 34
APA Documentation
with Case Study
34a What is APA style?
The American Psychological Association (APA) sponsors the APA style, a
DOCUMENTATION system widely used in the social sciences. APA style
involves two equally important features that need to appear in research
papers: in-text citations and references.
34b What are APA parenthetical in-text citations?
430
The APA-STYLE DOCUMENTATION guidelines here follow the recommendations of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,
Fifth Edition (2001), which is the most current print edition. The URL for
APA’s general Web site is ; it answers some basic style
questions and mostly refers you to the Publication Manual. However, APA
has set up a special free Web site devoted exclusively to electronic sources
(APA term for online sources, CD-ROMs, etc.). APA provides this because
electronic sources are still evolving rapidly and therefore tend to change.
Anyone with Internet access can use the site at . It offers links to selected specific examples of citations
of electronic sources, some of which aren’t covered in the APA Publication
Manual; unusually direct, practical FAQs; and other useful material.
APA style requires parenthetical IN-TEXT CITATIONS that identify a
SOURCE by the author’s name (if no author, use a shortened version of the
title) and the copyright year. For readability and a good writing style, you can
often incorporate the name, and sometimes the year, into your sentence.
Otherwise, place this information in parentheses, located as close as possible
to the material you QUOTE, PARAPHRASE, or SUMMARIZE. Your goal is to tell
readers precisely where they can find the original material.
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,
Fifth Edition (2001), recommends that if you refer to a work more than once
in a paragraph, you give the author’s name and the date at the first mention
and then give only the name after that. An exception is when you’re citing
two or more works by the same author, or when two or more of your sources
have the same name. In such cases, each separate citation must include the
date to identify which work you’re citing.
APA style requires page numbers for direct quotations and recommends
them for paraphrases and summaries. However, some instructors expect you
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APA
to give page references for paraphrases and summaries, so find out your
instructor’s preference to avoid any problems in properly crediting your
sources.
Put page numbers in parentheses, using the abbreviation p. before a single page number and pp. when the material you’re citing falls on more than
one page. For a direct quotation from an electronic source that numbers
paragraphs, give the paragraph number (or numbers). Handle paragraph
numbers as you do page numbers, but use para. or ¶ (the symbol for paragraph) rather than p. or pp. If no paragraph numbers appear in the source,
look for other ways to identify the location, such as sections introduced by
main headings.
34c What are APA guidelines for in-text citations?
The examples show how to cite various kinds of sources in the body of your
research paper. Remember, though, that you often can introduce source
names, including titles when necessary, and sometimes even years, in your
own sentences rather than in the parenthetical IN-TEXT CITATIONS.
Directory—APA In-Text Citations
1. Paraphrased or Summarized Source—APA
2. Source of a Short Quotation—APA
3. Source of a Long Quotation (and Format of Quotation)—APA
4. One Author—APA
5. Two Authors—APA
6. Three, Four, or Five Authors—APA
7. Six or More Authors—APA
8. Author(s) with Two or More Works in the Same Year—APA
9. Two or More Authors with the Same Last Name—APA
10. Work with a Group or Corporate Author—APA
11. Work Listed by Title—APA
12. Reference to More Than One Source—APA
13. Personal Communication, Including E-Mail and Other Nonretrievable
Sources—APA
14. Reference to an Entire Online Source—APA
15. Other References to Retrievable Online Sources—APA
16. Source Lines for Graphics and Table Data—APA
1. Paraphrased or Summarized Source—APA
People from the Mediterranean prefer an elbow-to-shoulder distance from
each other (Morris, 1977). [Author name and date cited in parentheses.]
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APA
Desmond Morris (1977) notes that people from the Mediterranean
prefer an elbow-to-shoulder distance from each other. [Author name
cited in text; date cited in parentheses.]
2. Source of a Short Quotation—APA
A report of reductions in SAD-related “depression in 87 percent of patients” (Binkley, 1990, p. 203) reverses the findings of earlier studies.
[Author name, date, and page reference in parentheses immediately following the quotation.]
Binkley (1990) reports reductions in SAD-related “depression in
87 percent of patients” (p. 203). [Author name followed by the date in
parentheses incorporated into the words introducing the quotation; page
number in parentheses immediately following the quotation.]
3. Source of a Long Quotation (and Format of Quotation)—APA
Incorporate a direct quotation of fewer than forty words in your own sentence and enclose it in quotation marks. Place the parenthetical in-text citation after the closing quotation mark and, if the quotation falls at the end of
the sentence, before the sentence-ending punctuation. When you use a quotation longer than forty words, set it off in block style indented one-half inch
or five to seven spaces from the left margin. Never enclose a set-off quotation in quotation marks because the placement in block style carries the message that the material is quoted. Place the parenthetical reference citation
one space after the end punctuation of the last sentence.
D i s p l a y e d Q u o t a t i o n ( F o r t y o r M o r e Wo r d s )
Jet lag, with its characteristic fatigue and irregular sleep patterns, is a
common problem among those who travel great distances by jet airplane
to different time zones:
Jet lag syndrome is the inability of the internal body rhythm to
rapidly resynchronize after sudden shifts in the timing. For a
variety of reasons, the system attempts to maintain stability and
resist temporal change. Consequently, complete adjustment can
often be delayed for several days—sometimes for a week—after
arrival at one’s destination. (Bonner, 1991, p. 72)
4. One Author—APA
One of his questions is, “What binds together a Mormon banker in
Utah with his brother or other coreligionists in Illinois or
Massachusetts?” (Coles, 1993, p. 2).
In a parenthetical reference in APA style, a comma and a space separate a
name from a year and a year from a page reference. (Examples 1 through 3
show citations of works by one author.)
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5. Two Authors—APA
APA
If a work has two authors, give both names in each citation.
One report describes 2,123 occurrences (Krait & Cooper, 1994).
The results that Krait and Cooper (1994) report would not support the
conclusions Davis and Sherman (1992) draw in their review of the
literature.
When you write a parenthetical in-text citation naming two (or more)
authors, use an ampersand (&) between the final two names, but write out
the word and for any reference in your own sentence.
6. Three, Four, or Five Authors—APA
For three, four, or five authors, use all the authors’ last names in the first reference. In all subsequent references, use only the first author’s last name followed by et al. (meaning “and others”). No period follows et, but one always
follows al.
First Reference
In one anthology, 35% of the selections had not been anthologized before
(Elliott, Kerber, Litz, & Martin, 1992).
Subsequent Reference
Elliott et al. (1992) include 17 authors whose work has never been
anthologized.
7. Six or More Authors—APA
For six or more authors, name the first author followed by et al. in all in-text
references, including the first. (See section 34f, model 3, for the correct References format.)
8. Author(s) with Two or More Works in the Same Year—APA
If you use more than one source written in the same year by the same
author(s), alphabetize the works by title for the References list, and assign
letters in alphabetical order to the years: (1996a), (1996b), (1996c). Use the
year-letter combination in parenthetical references. Note that a citation of
two or more such works lists the year extensions in alphabetical order.
Jones (1996c) drew new conclusions from the results of 17 sets of experiments (Jones, 1996a, 1996b).
9. Two or More Authors with the Same Last Name—APA
Include first initials for every in-text citation of authors who share a last name.
Use the initials appearing in the References list. (In the second example, a parenthetical citation, the name order is alphabetical, as explained in item 12.)
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APA DOCUMENTATION WITH CASE STUDY
R. A. Smith (1997) and C. Smith (1989) both confirm these results.
APA
These results have been confirmed independently (C. Smith, 1989;
R. A. Smith, 1997).
10. Work with a Group or Corporate Author—APA
If you use a source in which the “author” is a corporation, agency, or group,
an in-text reference gives that name as author. Use the full name in each citation, unless an abbreviated version of the name is likely to be familiar to your
audience. In that case, use the full name and give its abbreviation at the first
citation; then, use the abbreviation for subsequent citations.
This exploration will continue into the 21st century (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration [NASA], 1996). [In subsequent citations, use the
abbreviated form alone.]
11. Work Listed by Title—APA
If no author is named, use a shortened form of the title for in-text citations.
Ignoring A, An, or The, make the first word the one by which you alphabetize the title in your References. The following example refers to an article
fully titled “Are You a Day or Night Person?”
Scientists group people as “larks” or “owls” on the basis of whether individuals are more efficient in the morning or at night (“Are You,” 1989).
12. Reference to More Than One Source—APA
If more than one source has contributed to an idea or opinion in your paper,
cite the sources alphabetically by author in one set of parentheses; separate
each block of information with a semicolon, as in the following example.
Conceptions of personal space vary among cultures (Morris, 1977;
Worchel & Cooper, 1983).
13. Personal Communication, Including E-Mail and Other
Nonretrievable Sources—APA
Telephone calls, personal letters, interviews, and e-mail messages are “personal communications” that your readers cannot access or retrieve. Acknowledge personal communications in parenthetical references, but never
include them in your References list at the end of your research paper.
Recalling his first summer at camp, one person said, “The proximity of 12
other kids made me—an only child with older, quiet parents—frantic for
eight weeks” (A. Weiss, personal communication, January 12, 2006).
14. Reference to an Entire Online Source—APA
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If an online source does not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number preceded by the abbreviation para. If you cannot decipher the page
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APA
number or the paragraph, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph
following it.
(Anderson, 2003, para. 14)
(Migueis, 2002, Introduction, para. 1)
15. Other References to Retrievable Online Sources—APA
When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize an online source that is available
to others, cite the author (if any) or title and the date as you would for a print
source, and include the work in your References list.
16. Source Lines for Graphics and Table Data—APA
If you use a graphic from another source or create a table using data from
another source, provide a note at the bottom of the table or graphic, crediting
the original author and the copyright holder. Here are examples of two source
lines, one for a graphic from an article, the other for a graphic from a book.
G r a p h i c f r o m a n A r t i c l e — A PA
Note. The data in columns 1 and 2 are from “Bridge Over Troubled
Waters? Connecting Research and Pedagogy in Composition and Business/Technical Communication,” by J. Allen, 1992, Technical Communication Quarterly, 1 (4), p. 9. Copyright 1992 by the Association of Teachers of
Technical Writing. Adapted with permission of the author.
G r a p h i c f r o m a B o o k — A PA
Note. From How to Lower Your Fat Thermostat: The No-Diet Reprogramming Plan for Lifelong Weight Control (p. 74), by D. Remington,
A. G. Fisher, and E. Parent, 1983, Provo, UT: Vitality House International.
Copyright 1983 by Vitality House International. Reprinted with permission
of the publisher.
34d What are APA guidelines for writing
an abstract?
As the APA Publication Manual explains, “an abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary” (p. 12) of a longer piece of writing. APA estimates that an
abstract should be limited in length to about 120 words or less. Your instructor may require that you include an abstract at the start of a paper; if you’re
not sure, ask. Make the abstract accurate, objective, and exact. Actually,
when studying the social sciences, you may have become familiar with
effective abstracts, for many disciplines have online abstracts of longer
sources. See 34g for guidelines on formatting an Abstract page. Here is
an abstract prepared for the research paper on biological clocks that appears
in 34h.
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APA
Circadian rhythms, which greatly affect human lives, often suffer
disruptions in technological societies, resulting in such disorders as jet
lag syndrome and seasonal affective disorder (SAD). With growing
scientific awareness of both natural circadian cycles and the effects of
disturbances of these cycles, individuals are learning to control some
negative effects.
34e What are APA guidelines for content notes?
Content notes in APA-style papers add relevant information that cannot be
worked effectively into a text discussion. Use consecutive arabic numerals
for note numbers, both within your paper and on any separate page following the last text page of your paper. See 34g for instructions on formatting
the Footnotes page.
34f
What are APA guidelines for a references list?
The REFERENCES list at the end of your research paper provides complete
bibliographic information for readers who may want to access the sources
you drew on for your paper.
Include in a References list all the sources you QUOTE, PARAPHRASE, or
SUMMARIZE in your paper so that readers can find the same sources with reasonable effort. Never include in your References list any source that’s not
generally available to others (see item 13 in 34c).
General format guidelines are presented in Box 34-1. The directory that
follows the box corresponds to the numbered examples in this section. Not
all documentation models are shown here. You may have to combine features of models to document a particular source.
B OX 3 4 – 1
S U M M A RY
Guidelines for an APA-style References list
TITLE
References
PLACEMENT OF LIST
Start a new page numbered sequentially with the rest of the paper,
before the Notes pages, if any.
CONTENTS AND FORMAT
Include all quoted, paraphrased, or summarized sources in your paper
that are not personal communications, unless your instructor tells you
to include all the references you have consulted, not just those you
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APA
Guidelines for an APA-style References List
(continued)
have to credit. Start each entry on a new line, and double-space all
lines. In the 2001 edition of the Publication Manual (section 5.18),
APA recommends that student papers use a hanging indent style: The
first line of each entry begins flush left at the margin and all other
lines are indented. The hanging indent makes source names and dates
more prominent. Type the first line of each entry full width, and
indent subsequent lines one-half inch. The easiest way to do this is
using the word processor’s ruler bar.
Shuter, R. (1977). A field study of nonverbal communication in
Germany, Italy, and the United States. Communication
Monographs, 44, 298–305.
SPACING AFTER PUNCTUATION
The 2001 APA manual calls for one space after punctuation marks,
including within displayed quotations (see 34c, item 3).
ARRANGEMENT OF ENTRIES
Alphabetize by the author’s last name. If no author is named, alphabetize
by the first significant word (not A, An, or The) in the title of the work.
AUTHORS’ NAMES
Use last names, first initials, and middle initials, if any. Reverse the
order for all authors’ names, and use an ampersand (&) before the last
author’s name: Mills, J. F., & Holahan, R. H.
Give names in the order in which they appear on the work (on the
title page of a book or under the title of an article or other printed
work). Use a comma between the first author’s last name and first
initial and after each complete name except the last. Use a period after
the last author’s name.
DATES
Date information follows the name information and is enclosed in
parentheses. Place a period followed by one space after the closing
parenthesis.
For books, articles in journals that have volume numbers, and
many other print and nonprint sources, the year of publication or
production is the date to use. For articles from most generalcirculation magazines and newspapers, use the year followed by a
comma and then the exact date that appears on the issue (month and
day for daily and weekly publications, month alone for monthly and
bimonthly publications, and season for quarterly publications).
Capitalize any words and use no abbreviations. Individual entries in
34f show how much information to give for various sources.
➞
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APA
Guidelines for an APA-style References List
(continued)
CAPITALIZATION OF TITLES
For book, article, and chapter titles, capitalize the first word, the first
word after a colon between a title and subtitle, and any proper nouns.
For names of journals and proceedings of meetings, capitalize the first
word, all nouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives, and any other words
four or more letters long.
SPECIAL TREATMENT OF TITLES
Use no special treatment for titles of shorter works (poems, short
stories, essays, articles). Italicize titles of longer works (books,
names of newspapers or journals). Underlining can be used in place
of italic type if italic typeface is unavailable. Draw an unbroken line
that includes end punctuation. Do not drop A, An, or The from
the titles of periodicals (such as newspapers, magazines, and
journals).
PUBLISHERS
Use a shortened version of the publisher’s name except for an
association, corporation, or university press. Drop Co., Inc., Publishers,
and the like, but retain Books or Press.
PLACE OF PUBLICATION
For US publishers, give the city and add the state (use the two-letter
postal abbreviations listed in most dictionaries and in Box 29-4 in 29k)
for all US cities except Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New
York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. For publishers in other
countries, give city and country spelled out; no country name is needed
with Amsterdam, Jerusalem, London, Milan, Moscow, Paris, Rome,
Stockholm, Tokyo, and Vienna. However, if the state or country is part
of the publisher’s name, omit it after the name of the city.
PUBLICATION MONTH ABBREVIATIONS
Do not abbreviate publication months.
PAGE NUMBERS
Use all digits, omitting none. For references to parts of books or
material in newspapers, only use p. and pp. before page numbers. List
all discontinuous pages, with numbers separated by commas:
pp. 32, 44–45, 47–49, 53.
REFERENCES ENTRIES: BOOKS
Citations for books have four main parts: author, date, title, and
publication information (place of publication and publisher). Each part
ends with a period.
➞
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AUTHOR DATE
APA
Guidelines for an APA-style References list
(continued)
TITLE
Wood, P. (2003). Diversity: The invention of a concept.
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
San Francisco: Encounter Books.
REFERENCES ENTRIES: ARTICLES
Citations for periodical articles contain four major parts: author, date,
title of article, and publication information (usually, the periodical title,
volume number, and page numbers). Each part ends with a period.
AUTHOR
DATE
ARTICLE TITLE
Wood, W., Witt, M.G. & Tam, L. (2003). Changing circumstances.
PERIODICAL TITLE
VOLUME
NUMBER
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
88,
PAGE
RANGE
918–933.
REFERENCES ENTRIES: ELECTRONIC AND ONLINE SOURCES
Styles for documenting electronic and online sources continue to evolve.
The 2001 APA Publication Manual (pp. 268–281) and the APA Web
page are the best sources for upto-date advice on these formats. Here are two examples of entries. The
first is for an abstract on CD-ROM, a searchable “aggregated database”
(i.e., a compilation of resources grouped for directed or simplified
access). You are not required to document how you accessed the
database—via portable CD-ROM, on a library server, or via a supplier
Web site—but a “retrieval statement” that accurately names the source
(in this case, the database) and lists the date of retrieval is required. (If
you include an item or accession number, place it in parentheses.)
AUTHOR
DATE
ARTICLE TITLE
Marcus, H. F., & Kitayamo, S. (1991). Culture and the self:
Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
JOURNAL TITLE AND
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
RETRIEVAL
INFORMATION
Psychological Abstracts, 78. Retrieved October 2, 2005, from the
PsycINFO database (Item 1991-23978-001).
The second example is for an article in a newspaper consulted on the
World Wide Web. The retrieval statement gives the access date and
the URL, which “names” the source.
➞
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Guidelines for an APA-style References list
(continued)
AUTHOR
DATE
ARTICLE TITLE
Markel, H. (2003, September 2). Lack of sleep takes its toll on
ONLINE
NEWSPAPER TITLE
RETRIEVAL
INFORMATION
student psyches. The New York Times. Retrieved December 27, 2003,
from http://www.nytimes.com
Notice that the only punctuation in the URL is part of the address. Do
not add a period after a URL.
Directory—APA Style
PRINT SOURCES
1. Book by One Author—APA
2. Book by Two Authors—APA
3. Book by Three or More Authors—APA
4. Two or More Books by the Same Author(s)—APA
5. Book by a Group or Corporate Author—APA
6. Book with No Author Named—APA
7. Book with an Author and an Editor—APA
8. Translation—APA
9. Work in Several Volumes or Parts—APA
10. One Selection in an Anthology or an Edited Book—APA
11. Selection in a Work Already Listed in References—APA
12. Second or Subsequent Edition—APA
13. Anthology or Edited Book—APA
14. Unpublished Dissertation or Essay—APA
15. Book in a Series—APA
16. Government Publication—APA
17. Published Proceedings of a Conference—APA
18. Signed Article from a Daily Newspaper—APA
19. Editorial, Letter to the Editor, or Review—APA
20. Unsigned Article in a Daily Newspaper—APA
21. Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination—APA
22. Article in a Journal That Pages Each Issue Separately—APA
23. Published and Unpublished Letters—APA
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NONPRINT SOURCES
APA
24. Interview—APA
25. Lecture, Speech, or Address—APA
26. Motion Picture—APA
27. Music Recording—APA
28. Live Performance—APA
29. Work of Art, Photograph, or Musical Composition—APA
30. Radio or Television Broadcast—APA
31. Information Services—APA
ELECTRONIC AND ONLINE SOURCES
32. Article in an Encyclopedia on CD-ROM—APA
33. Computer Software—APA
34. Books Retrieved from Databases on the Web—APA
35. Article from a Periodical on the Web—APA
36. Electronic Copy of a Journal Article Retrieved from a Database—APA
37. Personal or Professional Site on the Web—APA
38. File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet, or Gopher site—APA
39. Synchronous Communications (MOO, MUD, IRC)—APA
40. Web Discussion Forum—APA
41. Listserv (Electronic Mailing List)—APA
42. Newsgroup—APA
Print Sources
1. Book by One Author—APA
Bradway, B. (2002). Pink houses and family taverns. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Note that all entries use the hanging indent style: the first line of an entry is
flush to the left margin and all other lines in the entry are indented one-half
inch.
2. Book by Two Authors—APA
Edin, K., & Kefalas, M. (2005). Promises I can keep: Why poor women put motherhood before marriage. Berkeley: University of California Press.
3. Book by Three or More Authors—APA
Lynam, J. K., Ndiritu, C. G., & Mbabu, A. N. (2004). Transformation of agricultural
research systems in Africa: Lessons from Kenya. East Lansing: Michigan
State University Press.
For a book by three to six authors, include all the authors’ names. For a book
by more than six authors, use only the first six names followed by et al.
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4. Two or More Books by the Same Author(s)—APA
APA
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York:
Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st
century. New York: Basic Books.
References by the same author are arranged chronologically, with the earlier
date of publication listed first.
5. Book by a Group or Corporate Author—APA
American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the
American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Boston Women’s Health Collective. (1998). Our bodies, ourselves for the new
century. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Cite the full name of the corporate author first. If the author is also the
publisher, use the word Author as the name of the publisher.
6. Book with No Author Named—APA
The Chicago manual of style (15th ed.). (2003). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
This would be alphabetized according to Chicago (the first important word
in the title).
7. Book with an Author and an Editor—APA
Brontë, E. (2002). Wuthering Heights (R. J. Dunn, Ed.). New York: Norton.
8. Translation—APA
Kundera, M. (1999). The unbearable lightness of being (M. H. Heim, Trans.). New
York: HarperPerennial. (Original work published 1984).
9. Work in Several Volumes or Parts—APA
Chrisley, R. (Ed.). (2000). Artificial intelligence: Critical concepts (Vols. 1–4).
London: Routledge.
10. One Selection in an Anthology or an Edited Book—APA
Trujillo, L. (2004). Balancing act. In R. Moreno & M. H. Mulligan (Eds.),
Borderline personalities: A new generation of Latinas dish on sex, sass,
and cultural shifting (pp. 61–72). New York: HarperCollins.
Give the author of the selection first. The word In introduces the larger work
from which the selection is taken. Note that names are inverted only in the
author position; in all other circumstances, write them in standard form.
11. Selection in a Work Already Listed in References—APA
Gilbert, S., & Gubar, S. (Eds.). (1985). The Norton anthology of literature by
women. New York: Norton.
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APA
Kingston, M. H. (1985). No name woman. In S. Gilbert & S. Gubar (Eds.), The
Norton anthology of literature by women (pp. 2337–2347). New York:
Norton.
Provide full information for the already-cited anthology (first example),
along with information about the individual selection. Put entries in alphabetical order.
12. Second or Subsequent Edition—APA
Gibaldi, J. (2003). MLA handbook for writers of research papers (6th ed.). New
York: Modern Language Association.
A book usually doesn’t announce that it’s a first edition. However, after the
first edition, the edition number appears on the title page. In your entry,
place the year of the edition after the title and in parentheses.
13. Anthology or Edited Book—APA
Purdy, J. L., & Ruppert, J. (Eds.). (2001). Nothing but the truth: An anthology of
Native American literature. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
14. Unpublished Dissertation or Essay—APA
Byers, M. (2000). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The insurgence of television as a
performance text. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
15. Book in a Series—APA
Give the title of the book, but not of the whole series.
Goldman, D. J. (1995). Women writers and World War I. New York: Macmillan.
16. Government Publication—APA
U.S. Congress. House Subcommittee on Health and Environment of the Committee on Commerce. (1999). The nursing home resident protection
amendments of 1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Use the complete name of a government agency as author when no specific
person is named.
17. Published Proceedings of a Conference—APA
Harris, D., & Nelson-Heern, L. (Eds.). (1981, June). Proceedings of the National
Education Computing Conference. Iowa City: University of Iowa, Weeg
Computing Center.
When citing a specific department or other university facility, place the name
of the university first.
18. Signed Article from a Daily Newspaper—APA
Killborn, P. T. (2003, June 22). A health threat baffling for its lack of a pattern.
The New York Times, p. A14.
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19. Editorial, Letter to the Editor, or Review—APA
APA
Downtown’s architectural promise. (2003, August 4). [Editorial]. The New York
Times, p. A12.
20. Unsigned Article in a Daily Newspaper—APA
Changes sought in medical services for veterans. (2003, August 5). The New
York Times, p. A10.
21. Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination—APA
Tyson, P. (1998). The psychology of women. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 46, 361–364.
Give only the volume number after the journal title, and italicize the volume
number.
22. Article in a Journal That Pages Each Issue Separately—APA
Adler-Kassner, L., & Estrem, H. (2003). Rethinking research writing: Public literacy in the composition classroom. WPA: Writing Program Administration, 26(3), 119–131.
Give the volume number, italicized with the journal title. Give the issue
number in parentheses; do not italicize it.
23. Published and Unpublished Letters—APA
Williams, W. C. (1935). Letter to his son. In L. Grunwald & S. J. Adler (Eds.),
Letters of the century: America 1900–1999. New York: Dial.
In the APA system, unpublished letters are considered personal communication inaccessible to general readers, so they do not appear in the References list. Personal communications do not provide recoverable data and so
are cited only in the body of the paper (see model 24).
Nonprint Sources
24. Interview—APA
In APA style, a personal interview is considered personal communication
and is not included in the References list. Cite the interview in the text with
a parenthetical notation saying that it is a personal communication.
Randi Friedman (personal communication, June 30, 2003) endorses this view.
25. Lecture, Speech, or Address—APA
Kennedy, J. F. (1960, September 12). Speech to the Greater Houston Ministerial
Association, Houston, TX.
26. Motion Picture—APA
Capra, F. (Director/Producer). (1934). It happened one night [Motion picture].
United States: Columbia Pictures.
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Capra, F. (Director/Producer). (1999). It happened one night [Videocassette].
(Original movie released 1934)
APA
Madden, J. (Director), Parfitt, D., Gigliotti, D., Weinstein, H., Zwick, E., &
Norman, M. (Producers). (2003). Shakespeare in love [DVD]. (Original
movie released 1998)
27. Music Recording—APA
Smetana, B. (1975). My country [With K. Anserl conducting the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra]. [Record]. London: Vanguard Records.
Springsteen, B. (2002). Lonesome day. On The rising [CD]. New York: Columbia
Records.
28. Live Performance—APA
Hare, D. (Author/Performer), & Daldry, S. (Director). (1999, April 11). Via dolorosa
[Live performance]. New York: Lincoln Center Theater.
29. Work of Art, Photograph, or Musical Composition—APA
Cassatt, M. La toilette [Artwork]. Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago.
Mydans, C. (1999, October 21-November 28). General Douglas MacArthur
landing at Luzon, 1945 [Photograph]. New York: Soho Triad Fine Art
Gallery.
Schubert, F. Unfinished symphony [Musical composition].
30. Radio or Television Broadcast—APA
Barnes, P. (Producer), & Burns, K. (Writer). (1999, November 8). Not for ourselves
alone: The story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony
[Television broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.
If you’re citing a television series produced by and seen on one station, cite its
call letters.
31. Information Services—APA
Chiang, L. H. (1993). Beyond the language: Native Americans’ nonverbal
communication. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 368540).
Electronic and Online Sources
Information from online sources that your readers cannot readily retrieve for
themselves—e-mail messages and discussion list communications, for
example—should be treated as personal communications (see model 24).
Never include them in your References list. If you have a scholarly reason to
cite a message from a newsgroup, forum, or electronic mailing list that is available in an electronic archive, then document an author name; the exact date of
the posting; the subject line or “thread” (do not italicize it) followed by an
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identifier in square brackets—[Msg 23]; and a “Message posted to” statement
that lists the URL of the message or of the archive. Following is an example:
Hesse, D. (2003, August 1). Research on large class size [Msg 192]. Message
posted to http://lists.asu.edu/archives/wpa-l.html
The APA system for documenting electronic and online sources in a References list has been evolving. At the time of this writing, the guidelines in the
APA Publication Manual, Fifth Edition (2001), remain most current. In general, APA recommends giving author, title, and publication information as
for a print source. This information is followed by a “retrieval statement” that
leads the reader as directly as possible to your source.
In contrast to MLA style, APA style doesn’t require you to use angle
brackets around URLs in retrieval statements. Also, APA allows you to break
a URL either after a slash or after a period.
32. Article in an Encyclopedia on CD-ROM—APA
Artificial intelligence. (2003). Encarta 2003. Retrieved December 10, 2003, from
the Encarta database.
The retrieval statement gives the retrieval date in full and the name of the
database. The entry ends with a period.
33. Computer Software—APA
Transparent Language Presentation Program (Version 2.0 for Windows)
[Computer software]. (1994). Hollis, NH: Transparent Language.
Provide an author name, if available. Standard software and program languages do not need to be listed in References. Provide the name and, in
parentheses, the version number in the text.
34. Books Retrieved from Databases on the Web—APA
Adams, H. (1918). The education of Henry Adams. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Retrieved April 4, 2005, from the Project Bartleby database:
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/bartleby/159/index/html
The first information is for the printed version of The Education of Henry
Adams. The retrieval statement gives the access date, the name of the database, and the URL of the specific work.
Chopin, K. (1899). The awakening. Retrieved February 12, 2005, from the PBS
database: http://www.pbs.org/katechopin/library/awakening
35. Article from a Periodical on the Web—APA
Parrott, A. C. (1999). Does cigarette smoking cause stress? American Psychologist, 54(10), 817–820. Retrieved April 7, 2005, from http://www.apa.org/
journals/amp/amp54/10/817.html
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36. Electronic Copy of a Journal Article Retrieved from a Database—APA
APA
Wright, K. (2002, September). Times of our lives. Scientific American, 287, 58–64.
Retrieved July 2, 2003, from Academic Search Elite database.
37. Personal or Professional Site on the Web—APA
Hesse, D. (2005, January). Home page. Retrieved March 22, 2005, from
http://www.ilstu.edu/~ddhesse
American Association for Artificial Intelligence. (2005, March). Retrieved
March 17, 2005, from http://www.aaai.org
38. File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet, or Gopher Site—APA
Taine, H. A. (2001, April). The French Revolution Volume II. Retrieved October 21,
2002, from ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/Gutenberg
After the retrieval data, supply the FTP, telnet, or gopher search path.
39. Synchronous Communications (MOO, MUD, IRC)—APA
Give the name of the speaker, a title for the event, the date of the event or
posting, the access date, and the URL.
Bleck, B. (1997, June 8). Online discussion of Virtual first year composition:
Distance education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. Retrieved
February 27, 1999, from http://lrc.csun.edu/DaMOO/cw/brad.html
40. Web Discussion Forum—APA
Higa, S. (2002, June 26). A potential bookmark [Msg. 483]. Message posted to
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Modern_Era/messages/483
41. Listserv (Electronic Mailing List)—APA
Caruso, T. (2002, September 30). CFP: Flannery O’Connor and feminism. Message posted to Calls for Papers electronic mailing list, archived at
http://www.english.upenn.edu/CFP/archive/American/0421.html
APA advises the use of electronic mailing list rather than listserv or list
server.
42. Newsgroup—APA
Boyle, F. (2002, October 11). Psyche: Cemi field theory: The hard problem made
easy [Msg 1]. Message posted to news://sci.psychology.consciousness
34g What are APA format guidelines for research
papers?
Ask whether your instructor has instructions for preparing a final draft. If
not, you can use the APA guidelines here.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS—APA
Use 81⁄2-by-11-inch white bond paper. The APA Publication Manual recommends double-spacing for a final manuscript of a student research paper. Set
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at least a one-inch margin on the left (slightly more if you submit your paper in
a binder) and leave no less than one inch on the right and at the bottom.
Leave one-half inch from the top edge of the paper to the title-and-pagenumber line, described on the next page. Leave another one-half inch (or one
inch from the top edge of the paper) before the next line on the page, whether
that is a heading (such as “Abstract” or “Notes”) or a line of your paper.
A L E R T: Most word processing programs set the top and bottom margins at one inch as their default. Also, they generally set the “header” function at a default of one-half inch. Therefore, formatting the margins for your
paper is probably less troublesome than it might seem. You simply need to
check the default settings.
Use indents of one-half inch for the first line of all paragraphs, except in
an abstract, the first line of which is not indented. Do not justify the right
margin. Indent footnotes one-half inch.
ORDER OF PARTS—APA
Number all pages consecutively. Use this order for the parts of your
paper:
1. Title page
2. Abstract (if required)
3. Body of the paper
4. References
5. Appendixes, if any
6. Footnotes, if any
7. Attachments, if any (questionnaires, data sheets, or other material your
instructor asks you to include)
TITLE-AND-PAGE-NUMBER LINE FOR ALL PAGES—APA
Use a title-and-page-number line on all pages of your paper. Leaving a
margin of one-half inch from the top edge of the paper, type the title (use a
shortened version if necessary), leave a five-character space, and then type the
page number. End the title-and-page-number line one inch from the right
edge of the paper. Ask whether your instructor wants you to include your last
name in this title-and-page-number line. The “header” tool on a word processing program will help you create the title-and-page-number line easily.
TITLE PAGE—APA
Use a separate title page. On it, begin with the title-and-page-number
line described above, using the numeral 1 for this first page. Then, center the
complete title vertically and horizontally on the page. Use two or more
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APA
double-spaced lines if the title is long. Do not italicize (or underline) the title
or enclose it in quotation marks. On the next line, center your name, and
below that center the course title and section, your professor’s name, and
the date.
A L E R T S : (1) Use the guidelines here for capitalizing the title of your
own paper and for capitalizing titles you mention in the body of your paper.
(Note: See “Special treatment of titles,” in Box 29-4, on the capitalization of
titles in a References list, since different rules apply.)
(2) Use a capital letter for the first word of your title and for the first
word of a subtitle, if any. Start every noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, and
adjective with a capital letter. Capitalize each main word in a hyphenated
compound word (two or more words used together to express one idea):
Father-in-Law, Self-Consciousness. Capitalize the word after a colon or
a dash.
(3) Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it starts a title or one of
the preceding capitalization rules applies to it. Do not capitalize prepositions
and conjunctions unless they are five or more letters long. Do not capitalize
the word to used in an infinitive.
ABSTRACT—APA
See 34d for advice about what to include in an abstract of your paper.
Type the abstract on a separate page, using the numeral 2 in the title-andpage-number line. Center the word Abstract one inch from the top of the
paper. Do not italicize (or underline) it or enclose it in quotation marks.
Double-space below this title, and then start your abstract, double-spacing
it. Do not indent the first line.
SET-OFF QUOTATIONS—APA
Set off (display in block form) quotations of forty words or more.
Double-space to start a new line for the quoted words, indenting each line
of the (double-spaced) quotation one-half inch or five to seven spaces from
the left margin. Do not enclose the quoted words in quotation marks.
If you are quoting part of a paragraph or one complete paragraph, do not
indent the first line more than one-half inch. But if you quote two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of the second and subsequent paragraphs one inch.
When the quotation is finished, leave one space after the sentenceending punctuation, and then give the parenthetical citation. Begin a new
line to resume your own words.
REFERENCES LIST—APA
Start a new page for your References list immediately after the end of the
body of your paper. Use a title-and-page-number line. Drop down one inch
from the top of the paper and center the word References. Do not italicize
(or underline) it or put it in quotation marks. Double-space below it. Start
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the first line of each entry at the left margin, and indent any subsequent lines
one-half inch from the left margin. Use this “hanging indent” style unless
your instructor prefers a different one. Double-space within each entry and
between entries.
NOTES—APA
Whenever you use a content note in your paper (34e), try to arrange your
sentence so that the note number falls at the end. The ideal place for a
note number is after the sentence-ending punctuation. Use a numeral raised
slightly above the line of words and immediately after the final punctuation
mark.
Put your notes on a separate page after the last page of your References
list. Use a title-and-page-number line. Then, center the word Footnotes one
inch from the top of the paper. Do not italicize (or underline) it or put it in
quotation marks.
On the next line, indent one-half inch and begin the note. Raise the note
number slightly, and then start the words of your note leaving no space. If
the note is more than one typed line, do not indent any line after the first.
Double-space throughout.
34h A student’s APA-style research paper
Carlos Velez wrote the following research paper in response to an
assignment calling for a research paper about an unconscious process in
humans.
In APA style,
position the titleand-page-number
line 1⁄2″ from top of
paper.
In APA style, center
the following
information in the
middle of the page:
title, your name,
course title and
section, the
professor’s name,
and the date; use
double-spacing.
APA-style title page
450
⁄2″
1
Biological Clocks
1
1″
Biological Clocks:
The Body’s Internal Timepieces
Carlos Velez
Introduction to Psychology 115, Section P1
Professor Robert
Schmitt November 17, 2003
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A student’s APA-style research paper
APA
⁄2″
1
1″
Biological Clocks
2
1″
Abstract
DOUBLE
SPACE
Circadian rhythms, which greatly affect human lives, often
suffer disruptions in technological societies, resulting in such
disorders as jet lag syndrome and seasonal affective disorder
APA style requires
that an abstract
be placed on a
separate page.
(SAD). With growing scientific awareness of both natural
1″
circadian cycles and the effects of disturbances of these
cycles, people are learning to control some negative effects.
APA-style abstract page
Biological Clocks
Biological Clocks:
The Body’s Internal Timepieces
Life in modern technological societies is built around
timepieces. People set clocks on radios, microwave ovens,
VCRs, and much more. Students respond to bells that start
3
APA STYLE: 1″
margins; doublespaced
throughout
INTRODUCTION:
Gets reader’s
attention
and end the school day in kindergarten through twelfth
grades. While carefully managing the minutes and hours
each day, individuals are often forced by styles of family
and work life to violate another kind of time: their body’s
THESIS
time. Biological clocks, also known as circadian cycles, are STATEMENT: Gives
paper’s focus
a significant feature of human design that greatly affects
people personally and professionally.
(Proportions shown in this paper are adjusted to fit space limitations of this book. Follow
actual dimensions discussed in this book and your instructor’s directions.)
➞
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Biological Clocks
FIRST
HEADING
4
The Body’s Natural Cycles
The term circadian, which is Latin for “about a day,”
PARAGRAPH 2:
First body describes the rhythms of people’s internal biological
paragraph gives
background clocks. Circadian cycles are in tune with external time
information.
cycles such as the 24-hour period of the earth’s daily
rotation as signaled by the rising and setting of the sun. In
fact, according to William Schwartz, professor of
neurobiology and a researcher in the field of chronobiology
(the study of circadian rhythm), “All such biological clocks
Statement
by Schwartz is are adaptations to life on a rotating world” (as cited in
in article by
Lewis. Lewis, 1995, p. 14). Usually, humans set their biological
Author
name(s) and
year in
parentheses
when not
included in
text
clocks by seeing these cycles of daylight and darkness.
Studies conducted in caves or similar environments that
allow researchers to control light and darkness have
shown that most people not exposed to natural cycles of
day and night create cycles slightly over 24 hours (Czeisler
et al., 1999). Human perception of the external day-night
No page cycle affects the production and release of a brain
numbers for
paraphrases hormone, melatonin, which is important in initiating and
and regulating the sleep-wake cycle, as Alfred Lewy and
summaries
other scientists at the National Institutes of Health in
Bethesda, Maryland, have found (Winfree, 1987).
Each individual’s lifestyle reflects that person’s own
PARAGRAPH 3:
Defines larks
and owls circadian cycle. Scientists group people as “larks” or
“owls” on the basis of whether individuals are more
efficient in the morning or at night. The idea behind the
labels is that “in nature certain animals are diurnal, active
during the light period; others are nocturnal, active at
Partial title
used because night. The ‘morning lark’ and the ‘night owl’ connotations
source does typically are used to categorize the human extremes” (“Are
not give
an author You,” 1989, p. 11).
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A student’s APA-style research paper
“Owls” who must stay up late at night and “larks”
who must awaken early in the morning experience mild
versions of “jet lag,” the disturbance from which time-zone
5
APA
Biological Clocks
Disruptions of Natural Cycles
SECOND
HEADING
PARAGRAPH 4:
Applies terms
to jet lag
travelers often suffer. Jet lag, which is characterized by
fatigue and irregular sleep patterns, results from
disruption of circadian rhythms in most people who fly in
jets to different time zones:
Jet lag syndrome is the inability of the internal body In APA style,
rhythm to rapidly resynchronize after sudden shifts
in the timing. For a variety of reasons, the system
attempts to maintain stability and resist temporal
change. Consequently, complete adjustment can
block-indented
paragraph for
quotations over
40 words indents
1
⁄2″ or five to seven
spaces
often be delayed for several days—sometimes for a
week—after arrival at one’s destination. (Bonner,
1991, p. 72)
According to Richard Coleman (1986), “the number, rate,
and direction of time-zone changes are the critical factors
in determining the extent and degree of jet lag symptoms”
Quotations
require page
number with p. or
pp. for more than
one page.
(p. 67). In general, eastbound travelers find it harder than
westbound travelers to adjust.
Proof of this theory can be found in the national
pastime, baseball. Three researchers analyzed win-loss
records to discover whether jet lag affected baseball
PARAGRAPH 5:
Additional
specific support
for previous
paragraph
players’ performance (Recht, Lew, & Schwartz, 1995).
The study focused on the records of teams in the eastern
and western United States over a period of 3 years. If a
Statistics
illustrate example.
visiting team did not have to travel through any time
zones, it lost 54% of the time. If the visiting team had
traveled from west to east, it lost 56.2% of the time.
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Biological Clocks
6
But if they had traveled from east to west, the visitors lost
only 37.1% of the time.
Another group that suffers greatly from biological-clock
PARAGRAPH 6:
New example
describes disruptions consists of people whose livelihoods depend on
problem as it erratic schedules. This situation affects 20 to 30 million U.S.
affects another
group, shift workers whose work schedules differ from the usual morning
workers.
starting time and afternoon or early evening ending time
(Weiss, 1989). Sue Binkley (1990) reports that Charles Czeisler,
director of the Center for Circadian and Sleep Disorders at
Specific Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston, found that 27% of
details to
illustrate the U.S. workforce does shift work. Shift work can mean, for
example example, working from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. for six weeks,
from 3:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. for six weeks, and from 11:00 p.m.
to 7:00 a.m. for six weeks. Shift workers are at greater risk for
heart disease, stomach disorders, insomnia, mood disorders,
and infertility (Latta & Van Cauter, 2003). In a 1989 report to
the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Czeisler states that “police officers, [medical] interns, and
many others who work nights perform poorly and are
involved in more on-the-job accidents than their daytime
counterparts” (as cited in Binkley, 1990, p. 26).
Other researchers confirm that safety is at risk during
PARAGRAPH 7:
Additional
late-shift hours. In a study of 28 medical interns observed
specific support
during late-night shifts over a 1-year period, 25% admitted to
falling asleep while talking on the phone, and 34% had had
at least one accident or near-accident during that period
(Weiss, 1989, p. 37). Investigations into the Challenger space
shuttle explosion and the nuclear-reactor disasters at Three
Mile Island and Chernobyl reveal critical errors made by
people undergoing the combined stresses of lack of sleep
and unusual work schedules (Toufexis, 1989).
454
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all the time. Their professional group, the American
College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP), after
investigating circadian rhythms and shift work, drafted a
formal policy statement, approved by ACEP’s board of
directors in 1994. The policy calls for “shifts . . . consistent
with circadian principles” to prevent burnout and keep
emergency physicians from changing their medical
7
PARAGRAPH
8: One
group’s
response to
information
on biological
clocks
Ellipsis indicates
words have been
omitted within a
direct quotation.
specialty. Also, such a policy would provide the best care
for patients (Thomas, 1996).
If jet lag and circadian disruptions caused by shift
work are obvious ways to upset a biological clock, a less
obvious disruption is increasingly recognized as a medical
PARAGRAPH 9:
Applies problem
to a medical
condition
problem: the disorder known as seasonal affective disorder
(SAD). Table 1 lists some of the major symptoms of SAD.
Table 1
Common Symptoms of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Table title
Sadness
Later waking
Anxiety
Increased sleep time
Table lists items
efficiently, making
them easy to find.
Decreased physical activity
Interrupted, unrefreshing
sleep
Irritability
Daytime drowsiness
Increased appetite
Decreased sexual drive
Craving for carbohydrates
Menstrual problems
Weight gain
Work problems
Earlier onset of sleep
Interpersonal problems
Note. From The Clockwork Sparrow (p. 204), by S. Binkley, 1990,
Note below table
provides source.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Copyright 1990 by Prentice
Hall. Reprinted with permission.*
➞
*For professional publications APA recommends that tables appear on separate pages at the end of
your paper. Determine your instructor’s preference.
455
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Biological Clocks
Emergency room physicians experience these two stresses
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Biological Clocks
8
THIRD Ways to Help People Affected by Cycle Disruptions
HEADING
SAD appears to be related to the short daylight
PARAGRAPH (photoperiod) of winter in the temperate zones of the
10: Solution
to problem northern and southern hemispheres. Michael Terman, a
clinical psychologist at Columbia Presbyterian Medical
Center’s New York State Psychiatric Institute, has studied
SAD patients for many years. He has observed their
inability to function at home or at work from fall to spring
(Caldwell, 1999). Research by Kelly Rohan, Sandra Sigmon,
and Diana Dorhofer (2003) suggests that negative thought
patterns and reduced activity enjoyment also correlate
with SAD. The phenomenon of SAD not only illustrates the
important role of circadian rhythms but also dramatically
proves that an understanding of circadian principles can
help scientists improve the lives of people who experience
disruptions of their biological clocks. Binkley (1990) claims
that exposure to bright light for periods of up to two hours a
Specific method
for reducing SAD
day during the short-photoperiod days of winter reduces
SAD-related “depression in 87 percent of patients . . . within
a few days: relapses followed” when light treatment ended
(pp. 203–204). The treatment works because specific cells in
the retina of the eye transmit information to “two clusters of
10,000 nerve cells in the hypothalamus of the brain” that
control the body’s biological clock (Wright, 2002, p. 60).
PARAGRAPH 11:
Applies solution
in previous
paragraph
Lengthening a person’s exposure to bright light can
also help combat the effects of jet lag and shift work.
Specific suggestions for using light to help reset a jet
traveler’s biological clock include trying to sleep when it
gets dark at your destination and “being outdoors as much
as possible during the afternoon” (Herxheimer &
Waterhouse, 2003, p. 297). Night-shift workers should stay in
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9
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Biological Clocks
the dark during the day and can benefit from strong bright
light exposure at work (Boivin & James, 2002).
More substantial changes may be required to help
some people affected by disruptions of their biological
clocks. Susan Black (2000) summarizes research that shows
PARAGRAPH
12:
Continues
solution
most adolescents’ biological clocks are set so that they
cannot fall asleep until after 10:30. Since they need a little
more than 9 hours of sleep per night, the customary school
starting time of 7:30–8:30 a.m. comes too early. Adolescents
may be able to reset their circadian clocks by going to
sleep 15 minutes earlier—including on weekends—over a
gradual period of several weeks. Conversely, schools may
need to consider later starting times.
Establishing work schedules more sensitive to
biological clocks can increase a sense of well-being and
reduce certain safety hazards. A group of police officers in
Philadelphia were studied while on modified shift
schedules (Locitzer, 1989; Toufexis, 1989). The officers were
changed between day shifts and night shifts less frequently
PARAGRAPH 13:
Specific system to
reduce time-shift
problems
In APA style,
summary of two
sources separated
by semicolon for
in-text citations
than they had been on former shift schedules. Also, they
rotated forward rather than backward in time; and they
worked four rather than six consecutive days. The officers
reported 40% fewer patrol car accidents and decreased use
of drugs or alcohol to get to sleep. Overall, the police officers
preferred the modified shift schedules. Charles Czeisler,
who conducted the study, summarizes the importance of
these results: “When schedules are introduced that take into
account the properties of the human circadian system,
subjective estimates of work schedule satisfaction and
health improve, personnel turnover decreases, and work
productivity increases” (as cited in Locitzer, 1989, p. 66).
➞
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Biological Clocks
10
Conclusion
Scientists like Charles Czeisler are guiding individuals
CONCLUSION:
Points to
future
to live harmoniously with their biological clocks. The growing
awareness of the negative effects of shift work and travel
across time zones has led to significant advances in reducing
problems caused by disruptions of people’s natural cycles.
The use of light to manipulate the body’s sense of time has
also helped. As more of us realize how circadian rhythms can
affect our lifestyles, we might learn to control our biological
clocks instead of our biological clocks’ controlling us.
Biological Clocks
Begin References
on new page.
11
References
Are you a day or night person? (1989, March 4). USA Today, p.11.
Binkley, S. (1990). The clockwork sparrow. Englewood Cliffs,
Double-space
throughout.
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Black, S. (2000, December). A wake-up call on high-school
starting times. Education Digest, 6, 33-38. Retrieved
List References
in alphabetical
order.
September 7, 2003, from Academic Search Elite database.
Boivin, D. B., & James, F. O. (2002). Circadian adjustment to
night-shift work by judicious light and darkness
See page 441 for
advice about
formatting an
APA-style
References list
using a “hanging
indent” style
exposure. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 17, 556–567.
Bonner, P. (1991, July). Travel rhythms. Sky Magazine, 72–73, 76–77.
Caldwell, M. (1999, July). Mind over time. Discover, 20, 52.
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Czeisler, C., Duffy, J. F., Shanahan, T. L., Brown, E. N., Mitchell, J. F.,
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and near-24-hour period of the human circadian
pacemaker. Science, 284, 2177–2181.
Herxheimer, A., & Waterhouse, J. (2003). The prevention and
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Latta, F., & Van Cauter, E. (2003). Sleep and biological clocks.
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Lewis, R. (1995, December 24). Chronobiology researchers say
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Locitzer, K. (1989, July/August). Are you out of sync with each
other? Psychology Today, 23, 66.
Recht, L., Lew, R., & Schwartz, W. (1995, October 19). Baseball
teams beaten by jet lag [Letter]. Nature, 377, 583.
Source is a letter
appearing in
Nature publication.
Rohan, K. J., Sigmon, S. T., & Dorhofer, D. M. (2003). Cognitivebehavioral factors in seasonal affective disorder.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 22–30.
Thomas, H. A. (1996). Circadian rhythms and shift work.
ACEP Online. Retrieved August 28, 2003, from
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Toufexis, A. (1989, June 5). The times of your life. Time, 133, 66–67.
Weiss, R. (1989, January 21). Safety gets short shrift on long
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Winfree, A. (1987). The timing of biological clocks. New York:
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